托福寫作一直是困擾中國考生的一個(gè)瓶頸。很多考生在通過基礎(chǔ)課的學(xué)習(xí)和課下大量反復(fù)的練習(xí)后,能夠掌握英語的基本句型結(jié)構(gòu),在寫作中有意識(shí)的組織、輸出符合語法規(guī)范的句子,為語言的準(zhǔn)確性提供了保障。但隨后,這些學(xué)生又會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)進(jìn)階高分才是“破繭成蝶”追求質(zhì)變的過程。謹(jǐn)以此文獻(xiàn)給廣大托?忌,望為大家在高分沖刺環(huán)節(jié)帶來一些啟示和福音。托?荚噦淇紵峋:400-618-0272。
托福寫作一直是困擾中國考生的一個(gè)瓶頸。很多考生在通過基礎(chǔ)課的學(xué)習(xí)和課下大量反復(fù)的練習(xí)后,能夠掌握英語的基本句型結(jié)構(gòu),在寫作中有意識(shí)的組織、輸出符合語法規(guī)范的句子,為語言的準(zhǔn)確性提供了保障。但隨后,這些學(xué)生又會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)進(jìn)階高分才是“破繭成蝶”追求質(zhì)變的過程。強(qiáng)化班的學(xué)生一般通過了大學(xué)英語六級(jí)考試,具備一定的英語學(xué)習(xí)基礎(chǔ),對(duì)句子結(jié)構(gòu)和表達(dá)習(xí)慣有一定的認(rèn)知,希望在句子結(jié)構(gòu)和篇章構(gòu)架上有新的突破,打造native speaker一般的語言。但由于長期受漢語思維影響句子過短,結(jié)構(gòu)單一,缺少連接過度詞,邏輯不嚴(yán)密等問題在這些考生中層出不窮。“如何寫長句?如何美化簡單句?什么樣的句子能夠打動(dòng)考官?”針對(duì)這些考生在托福高分寫作中常見問題,筆者從“句子位置”、“語法性質(zhì)”和“邏輯意思”三個(gè)維度入手,以“句子位置”這一維度為主線,分為句首、句中和句末 “三部曲”進(jìn)行方法的總結(jié)。 謹(jǐn)以此文獻(xiàn)給廣大托?忌,望為大家在高分沖刺環(huán)節(jié)帶來一些啟示和福音。
一部曲:句首
“萬事開頭難”,寫句子也是如此。如何給考官留下良好的第一印象呢?中國學(xué)生習(xí)慣用名詞或者物主代詞放在句首做主語。雖然這樣的句子在語法結(jié)構(gòu)上挑不出毛病,但通篇都是這樣的句子,會(huì)讓考官產(chǎn)生視覺疲勞,認(rèn)為文章句式單一。如何讓我們的句子開頭開的新鮮有趣、靈活自如呢?這里送給大家7個(gè)“錦囊”:
錦囊1. 同位語
英語中經(jīng)常使用名詞性質(zhì)的成分來做同位語,用來解釋說明一個(gè)抽象概括性的名詞,使之具體化。這一點(diǎn)體現(xiàn)英語的思維習(xí)慣,而在漢語的表達(dá)中很少出現(xiàn)。如: 學(xué)生在表達(dá)“手機(jī)是人們?nèi)粘I钪胁豢扇鄙俚囊徊糠?rdquo;的時(shí)候?qū)懙紺ell phones are playing an indispensable role in people’s daily communication. 主語Cell phones的屬性是什么呢?假設(shè)讀者根本不清楚這個(gè)物品是什么,我們是否需要對(duì)它作補(bǔ)充說明呢?比如用同位語“現(xiàn)代最具革命性的發(fā)明之一”來修飾它,Cell phones, one of the most revolutionary inventions in modern times, are playing an indispensable role in people’s daily communication. 另,英語中,當(dāng)主語較短時(shí),我們通常把同位語移到句首,給它突出的位置,讓句子謂語前后的成分更加平衡,句子可變成:One of the most revolutionary inventions in modern times, cell phones are playing an indispensable role in people’s daily communication.
同理,考生想表達(dá)“購物如今在很大程度上發(fā)展的比以往更要迅猛。” Shopping is developing rapidly to a large extent more than ever before.這個(gè)句子用了正在進(jìn)行時(shí)生動(dòng)形象的表述了快速增長的這個(gè)趨勢(shì),表程度的短語to a large extent使語言更加嚴(yán)謹(jǐn),設(shè)參照物與過去進(jìn)行比較,讓論證更加客觀且具有說服力。但這句話還存在著改進(jìn)的空間。因?yàn)橹髡Zshopping是一個(gè)概括性的名詞,我們可以給用同位語——“人們?nèi)粘I钪胁豢扇鄙俣易罨镜沫h(huán)節(jié)之一”來詮釋它,再把這個(gè)同位語提到句首,這樣句子就變成了One of the most fundamental and essential aspects in people’s everyday life,shopping is developing rapidly to a large extent more than ever before. 這就像給句子帶上一頂“帽子”讓考官眼前一亮,也使謂語前后的成分更加平衡,讓考官讀起來很舒服。
錦囊2. 副詞或副詞短語
在《新概念三、四冊(cè)》中的句子經(jīng)常會(huì)使用地道的副詞做開頭,或在句中做插入成分。與其說這些副詞是裝飾點(diǎn)綴,不如說正體現(xiàn)的是英語重視邏輯和嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)?shù)奶卣。語言學(xué)家以“竹節(jié)句法”來比喻英語句子,所謂“竹節(jié)”就是必不可缺的各種銜接過渡符號(hào),其中句子副詞和相關(guān)副詞短語則是其必不可少的元素。
例如:在討論發(fā)展旅游業(yè)的利與弊的時(shí)候,學(xué)生寫到:Admittedly, cultures differences, indeed, are what expand one’s overlook, especially the locals who have never been out of the remote area. Yet, the uniqueness of ethnic minorities may be negatively affected and eroded by the flourishing tourism industry and their followers - tourists. When a host of visitors with modern ideas enter a time-honored tribe with unique culture, for instance, the tribe can be gradually assimilated. Particularly, living in poverty, residents in this tribe may give up their traditional lifestyles that no longer meet their demands for living. Instead, they tend to follow the modern one in terms of a higher living standard they expect.
考生一上來就用了“Admittedly”這個(gè)表示讓步關(guān)系的利好副詞,先肯定其好處——文化差異可以開闊一個(gè)人的世界觀,尤其是對(duì)于那些未曾走出過偏遠(yuǎn)地區(qū)的當(dāng)?shù)匕傩諄碚f;隨后,學(xué)生用了一個(gè)表示強(qiáng)轉(zhuǎn)折的副詞“Yet”,引出對(duì)立的觀點(diǎn),指出負(fù)面影響——旅游業(yè)的興盛以及隨之而來的游人會(huì)對(duì)這些少數(shù)民族文化的獨(dú)特性產(chǎn)生負(fù)面影響。這里筆者特別推薦大家使用讓步邏輯進(jìn)行論證,展現(xiàn)辯證思維,即考慮一個(gè)事物的兩面性。如這位考生 “欲抑先揚(yáng)”,其要表達(dá)的重點(diǎn)在表轉(zhuǎn)折的副詞——“Yet”后面,體現(xiàn)出成熟的論證策略。后面考生用“for instance”做插入語,標(biāo)志開始舉例論證——當(dāng)一批充滿現(xiàn)代觀念的游人來到一個(gè)歷史悠久的擁有獨(dú)特文化的部落時(shí),這個(gè)部落會(huì)逐漸被同化。之后,考生用“Particularly”將這個(gè)例子細(xì)化到極致,即舉出一種特定情況——如果生活貧困,當(dāng)?shù)鼐用駮?huì)放棄已經(jīng)不能滿足他們需求的傳統(tǒng)的生活方式。“Instead”,表示與傳統(tǒng)生活方式相對(duì)立的情況——高水平的現(xiàn)代生活。
上述例子通過在句首使用副詞作邏輯銜接,讓句子結(jié)構(gòu)錯(cuò)落有致,也創(chuàng)造出張弛有度的節(jié)奏感。重要的是,“Admittedly”--“Yet” --“Particularly”--“Instead”這四個(gè)副詞鮮明的勾勒出一幅邏輯框架。在謀篇上,若考生能夠注意使用表示邏輯的過渡詞,有助于考官迅速的把握出文章的脈絡(luò)。常見利好邏輯連接副詞總結(jié)如下,學(xué)生在閱讀過程中,亦可有意識(shí)的進(jìn)行總結(jié)。
錦囊3. 形容詞或形容詞短語
“Each shopping mall will be beautifully-decorated, and aims to create a special atmosphere for the promotion, when some festivals come.” 這個(gè)句子用一個(gè)合成形容詞beautifully-decorated作Each shopping mall的表語,說明其狀態(tài)特征?梢詫⑵涮岬骄涫,Beautifully-decorated, each shopping mall aims to create a special atmosphere for the promotion, when some festivals come.考官一看到句子,能先想象出一座裝飾精美的購物中心,之后冷靜的知曉這件事的目的是什么。
“Fragile and vulnerable, our earth is being threatened by people’s city life which tends to be extravagant and wasteful. ”這句話闡述了地球環(huán)境和人類城市生活的關(guān)系,而且分別用并列的形容詞構(gòu)成的平行結(jié)構(gòu)“Fragile and vulnerable”和“extravagant and wasteful”來修飾“地球環(huán)境”和“城市生活”的性質(zhì)、狀態(tài)或特征。這句話的原始狀態(tài)是:Our earth is fragile and vulnerable and it is being threatened by people’s city life which tends to be extravagant and wasteful考生巧妙地將Fragile and vulnerable移到句首,和句尾的extravagant and wasteful,構(gòu)成了對(duì)稱,這樣的表達(dá)native speaker將會(huì)抱著欣賞的態(tài)度去品讀。
錦囊4. 分詞短語
“Our earth becomes even more fragile and vulnerable, because it is being threatened by people’s city life.”這位考生寫的是個(gè)復(fù)合句,主句和從句的主語是同一個(gè)事物——"Our earth",所以我們可以將其簡化,Being threatened by people’s city life, our earth becomes more and more fragile and vulnerable. 這樣就變成了一個(gè)簡單句。其中現(xiàn)在分詞短語“Being threatened by people’s city life”放在句首做原因狀語,代替原來的由because引導(dǎo)的從句,our earth是其邏輯主語,這是一個(gè)“化繁為簡”的過程。
“If I was offered the opportunity to opt for one type of climate or the other, I would choose to live in a region where the weather is constantly changing throughout the year.”由于從句和主句的主語一致,考生在這里可以把條件狀語從句分詞化,即用過去分詞短語開頭充當(dāng)狀語,邏輯主語“I”是動(dòng)作的承受者:Offered the opportunity to opt for one type of climate or the other, I would choose to live in a region where the weather is constantly changing throughout the year.
錦囊5. 不定式短語
考生在翻譯“要學(xué)好英語,大量反復(fù)的練習(xí)是必須的”這句話是,有考生寫成“To study English well, abundant and constant practices are needed.”這句話中“abundant and constant practices”是句子的主語,不能做不定式“To study English well”的邏輯主語,所以應(yīng)改成:To study English well, you need abundant and constant practices. 或者 “Abundant and constant practices are needed for you to study English well.”另,“To acquire knowledge, one must study; but to acquire wisdom, one must observe.”兩個(gè)不定式結(jié)構(gòu)在句中作目的狀語, one同時(shí)充當(dāng)不定式的邏輯主語。
不定式在句中作獨(dú)立成分,可以看作是一種邏輯標(biāo)志,能引起讀者的注意,有助于考官對(duì)文章脈絡(luò)的把握。
錦囊6. 介詞短語
“For a short period, humans can benefit from chopping down forests and use the land to grow corn. But from the long-term perspective, they might have destroyed the ecological balance of many natural habitats in that region.”考生用兩個(gè)介詞短語開頭,分別從眼前和長遠(yuǎn)角度對(duì)“毀林種田”的結(jié)果進(jìn)行分析。另外,還有一些表示邏輯的介詞短語,見下表:
錦囊7. 從句
學(xué)生寫科技給人類帶來了很大的好處,“Scientific and technological developments has brought great benefits to people.”這個(gè)事實(shí)人人皆知,不可否認(rèn)的事實(shí)可嵌套在名詞性從句中來表達(dá),如:”Nobody can deny the fact that scientific and technological developments has brought great benefits to people.” 使用同位語從句,增強(qiáng)了句子的層次感,同時(shí)雙否的表達(dá)起到了強(qiáng)調(diào)的作用,這是一個(gè)利好句型。這樣的名詞性從句的"帽子"還有:It is manifest/conceivable/obvious/apparent/universally acknowledged that…,It is without doubt that…,It is widely-accepted that…;There’s no denying/doubt that…;Nobody can deny the fact that…等。
另,as 引導(dǎo)的非限定性定語從句可以放于句首,表示 “正如…”“就想…”,指代后面整個(gè)句子,如”As is so often pointed out, science is a double-edged sward which can be used equally for good or evil. “ 中“As is so often pointed out,…”表示“正如人們常常指出的,…”。這樣的用法還有:As can be seen from…,…;As is self-evident,…;As is known to all…等。
此外,狀語從句放在句首的情況是十分普遍的,如,“As long as one is careful and does not overdo it, doing sports is absolutely a wise idea for young children.”“Because one can see the body language and facial expression of the other person, I do believe face-to-face conversation is better”筆者將常用狀語從句連詞總結(jié)如下:
二部曲:句中
錦囊1. 同位語
英語習(xí)慣在一個(gè)名詞的后面使用同位語,解釋這個(gè)名詞的性質(zhì)、狀態(tài)或特征,或使其具體化:
“Our earth, more and more fragile and vulnerable, is being threatened by people’s city life. ”這里用并列的形容詞詞組做了our earth的同位語說明其特征。”It is imperative for people, both young and elderly, to green their daily routine.”這里用“both young and elderly”是people具體化。
此外,托福寫作評(píng)分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)中有一項(xiàng)是:內(nèi)容詳實(shí),要有舉例。漢語習(xí)慣注重概括,習(xí)慣從宏觀上去把握問題;英語習(xí)慣把一個(gè)問題具體化,側(cè)重個(gè)體微觀的分析。由于思維上的差異,這一點(diǎn)對(duì)于考生來說無疑又是一個(gè)挑戰(zhàn)。如何攻克呢?內(nèi)容上,建議考生們多聽多讀加大積累,還要勤于思考、分類總結(jié),或者直接買一本《論點(diǎn)論據(jù)大全》這樣的書。形式上,可用由for example, including, particularly, especially, namely, that is to say…等引導(dǎo)的同位語來解決。如“Our earth is so fragile and vulnerable that natural disasters, droughts, floods, sand storms, for instance, happened more and more frequently than ever before all around the world.”其中”droughts, floods, sand storms, for instance,”用來做“natural disasters”的同位語,可簡化成——A,B,C,for instance (A,B,C是名詞性的詞或短語的并列)做某個(gè)概括性的名詞的同位語,用來舉例,考生們加強(qiáng)積累和練習(xí)即能掌握。再如"Such a change has liberated many women and given them chance to do more meaningful things, a higher pay job or a more respectful one ,for example. " 這里用 “a higher pay job or a more respectful one, for example就將meaningful things”具體化了。
另,“It is absolutely true that people nowadays undergo great pressures that come from various directions, including work, school, economy, and so forth. ”中的“including”是介詞,所以后面應(yīng)該加并列的 名詞或名詞性詞組。
此外,“ Becoming an adult is based on a variety of events, namely, when one's body changes, when one's mind expands, and when one accumulates experiences. ” a variety of events很概括,后面用“namely,即”,進(jìn)行解釋這一系列的變化。
最后,“ On the other hand, the proposed factory would almost certainly have adverse effects on the local environment, particularly in regards to polluting the water. ” 為把“怎么對(duì)當(dāng)?shù)丨h(huán)境產(chǎn)生負(fù)面影響” 具體化,用“particularly”把讀者眼球聚焦在“污染水資源“這個(gè)典型上。
錦囊2. 插入語
英語與漢語在表達(dá)上的另一個(gè)差異就是插入語的使用。它可以是一個(gè)詞,短語或從句,常被逗號(hào)、破折號(hào)或句子的其他部分隔開,被歸為獨(dú)立成分,與句子的其他部分之間沒有語法上的關(guān)系。如:
“Our earth, true, is being threatened by people’s city life. ”
“Our earth, unfortunately, becomes more and more fragile and vulnerable. ”
“Our earth, as a matter of fact, becomes much more fragile and vulnerable.”
“Our earth, to be frank, becomes even more fragile and vulnerable.”
這四個(gè)句子用了形容詞(true)、副詞(unfortunately)、介詞短語(as a matter of fact)和不定式(to be frank)作句子的插入語起強(qiáng)、調(diào)轉(zhuǎn)移話題、附加解釋說明的作用,表明自己的態(tài)度和看法,以引起考官注意。
“Our earth, generally speaking, becomes more and more fragile and vulnerable.”分詞短語“generally speaking”使語言更加嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)。
“Our earth, if so, will become more and more fragile and vulnerable. ”“if so”承上啟下,使句子與前面的語句銜接的更緊密。
“Our earth, as I see it, becomes more and more fragile and vulnerable.”
“Our earth, I’m afraid, becomes more and more fragile and vulnerable.”
“Our earth-unlike what it appears- has actually been becoming more and more fragile and vulnerable.”
從句、句子或用標(biāo)點(diǎn)符號(hào)(通常是括號(hào)或破折號(hào))引導(dǎo)的句子也可以做插入語,表示觀點(diǎn)、態(tài)度,能夠表明邏輯關(guān)系。
常見表示做獨(dú)立成份的插入語,筆者按語法性質(zhì)歸納如下:
三部曲:句尾
打過籃球的同學(xué)都知道,不要輕易抱住球,這樣會(huì)造成在原地不能走動(dòng)。英語寫作,也不要輕易給一句話畫上句號(hào),想辦法將一個(gè)事物具體化或者有意識(shí)的在搭建一些邏輯關(guān)系,讓語義延伸。但,考生們切記不要用逗號(hào)連接兩個(gè)句子,如: Some children to a large extent are led by the movies and television instead of books or newspapers, they often lack skills of critical thinking. 這里考生寫了“一些兒童經(jīng)常看電視和電影而不看書讀報(bào),他們是缺乏批判性思維的。”中文用“逗號(hào)”連接兩個(gè)句子,讀者能推測(cè)出前后存在因果關(guān)系。然而英文中兩個(gè)句子需要用相應(yīng)的關(guān)聯(lián)成分進(jìn)行銜接,即:連詞,關(guān)系詞,標(biāo)點(diǎn)符號(hào)(句號(hào)、分號(hào)、冒號(hào)或破折號(hào))。所以這句話可改成Some children to a large extent are led by the movies and television instead of books or newspapers,and therefore they often lack skills of critical thinking.注意,therefore是副詞,前面需要加“and”或者“分號(hào)” 才能直接連接兩個(gè)句子。這樣的表邏輯的過渡成分總結(jié)如下:
錦囊1. 連詞+副詞
…,所以… 句子, and hence/thus/therefore/thereby +句子;
…,但是… 句子, but nevertheless + 句子;
…,但與之相反… 句子, but instead + 句子;
…, 否則… 句子, or/but otherwise+句子。
注:這些表邏輯的副詞不能直接連接兩個(gè)句子,前面必須配合“連詞或分號(hào)”一起使用。
錦囊2. 分詞結(jié)構(gòu)
錦囊3. 介詞結(jié)構(gòu)
…,以防…(表目的) …, for fear that…= …, in case + 句子=…, lest…
…,由于…(表原因) …, for the (simple)reason that…
…,盡管…(表讓步) …, despite the fact that…
錦囊4. 從句
引導(dǎo)狀語從句的連詞在“維度一. 句首”部分已經(jīng)總結(jié)過,這里不再贅述。另,筆者再推薦三個(gè)利好表達(dá):用非限定性定語從句,對(duì)主句或主句中的成分進(jìn)行修飾,補(bǔ)充或說明。
…,which… “More bus and subway lines would also save much space now wasted on parking lots, which makes sense from both environmental and city-planning perspectives.” Which在從句中代主句內(nèi)容。
…,in which… The importance of a teacher varies from period to period, and depends on different stages, in which we are learning. 具體說什么階段。
For those who are fascinated with art and music, Beijing is the right place, in which concerts of international singers or other musicians are much frequent. 在某個(gè)地方有什么特色,也解釋其主張。
…without which… Cell phones can be regarded as one of the most revolutionary inventions in 20th century, without which human interaction might never become so mobile like today. 描述某物的重要性可用這個(gè)句型,從反面論證“離開此物”便會(huì)怎樣。
結(jié)語:
回到最開始的問題,與其說“什么樣的句子能夠打動(dòng)考官?”不如先說“西方人習(xí)慣讀什么樣的語言?”,或“西方人一般用何種思維方式來組織語言?” 進(jìn)行換位思考:如何讓考官在短時(shí)間內(nèi),識(shí)別你的行文脈絡(luò),讀懂你的文章,被你的論證說服,對(duì)你的論點(diǎn)產(chǎn)生認(rèn)同感,才是打開高分之門的金鑰匙。畢竟寫作的目的是交流,如果按照中式思維組織語言,英文表達(dá)將存在結(jié)構(gòu)松散,邏輯關(guān)系不明晰等問題。因?yàn)闈h語講究“意合”,注重神統(tǒng),不需要通過明顯的連接詞,讀者就能推測(cè)出上下文的關(guān)系。中國學(xué)生習(xí)慣了漢語的“流水句法”,而不習(xí)慣使用英語的連接詞,導(dǎo)致考官很難看出其論證過程和文章套路。因此“連接詞”是解決這個(gè)問題的突破口,即用一系列的過渡符號(hào)編織出文章的邏輯網(wǎng)絡(luò)。筆者分“句首、句中、句末”三部曲,結(jié)合語法性質(zhì),對(duì)要表達(dá)的邏輯意思進(jìn)行總結(jié)(關(guān)系見下圖),希望通過此文幫助考生在托福高分寫作語言結(jié)構(gòu)升級(jí)方面找到突破口,學(xué)著推敲,潤色,包裝自己的語言,告別“短句滿篇,句式單一,缺少過渡”的尷尬,多雕琢出一些語法漂亮、邏輯感強(qiáng)的長句,令考官心動(dòng)!
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