邊聽邊看 | “熊孩子”的成長軌跡

邊聽邊看 | “熊孩子”的成長軌跡

“邊聽邊看”

近日，和一位從澳洲回國來探親的好友閑聊，談及中西方的教育問題，尤其是中西方對于幼兒教育的不同理念。

很多中國父母對于0-3歲的小朋友的教育理念是“那么小懂什么，只要讓他（她）吃飽穿暖，不生病就好了”。于是，很多年輕父母要不就是將小孩交給自己的父母或保姆帶，要不就直接扔一個手機或平板電腦讓小朋友安靜下來。

但是，西方的研究理論認為，0-3歲是非常重要的幼兒教育時期，父母應該了解孩子的思維和語言能力的發(fā)展原理，才能對孩子的成長有所指導。

而西方教育理論在出國語言考試中也有充分的體現(xiàn)。雅思和托福的閱讀文章經(jīng)常會出現(xiàn)有關兒童教育和兒童心理的文章。例如雅思劍橋四TEST2 P3，講的是有關孩子玩耍的相關研究；雅思劍橋五 TEST3 P1，描述的是有關早期兒童教育的兩個實驗的結果和原因分析；雅思劍橋九 TEST4 P2涉及到兒童自我認知的發(fā)展等。

很巧的是，2016新年伊始的第一次雅思考試閱讀文章中，就又出現(xiàn)了一篇有關兒童智力和語言研究的研究類文章。于是，一方面為了讓大家熟悉托雅閱讀中�？嫉脑掝}內容，另一方面也是作為一名教育者，給大家普及下一個重要的教育心理學理論，所以今天邊邊就來和大家聊一下有關兒童心理學的一個重要內容--讓•皮亞杰的兒童認知發(fā)展階段理論 Stages of Cognitive Development。

讓•皮亞杰從小就是一位天才型思想家和研究者，他10歲就發(fā)表了有關鳥類生活的論文，有“科學神童”之稱。在納沙特爾大學讀書期間，對哲學、生物學、心理學和邏輯學富有興趣。他認為，生物學和哲學的融合是通向認識論的捷徑。之后他觀察了自己孩子們的成長和認知過程，并進行了許多實驗，為他創(chuàng)立兒童心理發(fā)展理論奠定了重要基礎。

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
皮亞杰的兒童認知發(fā)展階段理論

The Piaget stages of development is a blueprint that describes the stages of normal intellectual development, from infancy through adulthood. This includes thought, judgment, and knowledge. The stages were named after psychologist and developmental biologist Jean Piaget, who recorded the intellectual development and abilities of infants, children, and teens.

Piaget's four stages of intellectual (or cognitive) development are:

1. Sensorimotor Stage — Birth through ages 18-24 months 感知運動階段 （感覺—動作期）

During the early stages, infants are only aware of what is immediately in front of them. They focus on what they see, what they are doing, and physical interactions with their immediate environment.

Because they don't yet know how things react, they're constantly experimenting with activities such as shaking or throwing things, putting things in their mouths, and learning about the world through trial（試驗） and error. The later stages include goal-oriented（目標導向的） behavior which brings about a desired result.

Between ages 7 and 9 months, infants begin to realize that an object exists even if it can no longer be seen. This important milestone -- known as object permanence -- is a sign that memory is developing.

After infants start crawling, standing, and walking, their increased physical mobility leads to increased cognitive development. Near the end of the sensorimotor stage (18-24 months), infants reach another important milestone -- early language development, a sign that they are developing some symbolic abilities.

出生至2歲左右，是兒童智力發(fā)展的感知運動階段。在新生兒時期，嬰兒所能做的只是為數(shù)不多的反射性動作。通過與周圍環(huán)境的感覺運動接觸，也就是通過嬰兒加以客體的行動及這些行動所產(chǎn)生的結果來認識世界。

這個階段初期，嬰兒僅靠感覺和知覺動作的手段來適應外部環(huán)境，之后智慧動作會慢慢出現(xiàn)。一些動作格式（圖式）被當作目的，另一些動作格式則被當作手段使用。如兒童拉成人的手，把手移向他自己夠不著的玩具的方向，或者要成人揭開蓋著玩具的布。這表明兒童在做出這些動作之前已有取得物體（玩具）的意向。

到了這個階段的后期，嬰兒逐漸形成物體永久性（不是守恒）的意識。物體永久性的意識是指當一個物體（如爸爸媽媽、玩具）在他面前時，嬰兒知道有這個人或物，而當這個物體不在眼前時，他能認識到此物盡管當前摸不著、看不見也聽不到，但仍然是存在的。這個意識的形成與嬰兒語言及記憶的發(fā)展有關。

2. Preoperational Stage — Toddlerhood (18-24 months) through early childhood (age 7) 前運算階段

During this stage (toddler 初學走路的孩子 through age 7), young children are able to think about things symbolically. Their language use becomes more mature. They also develop memory and imagination, which allows them to understand the difference between past and future, and engage in make-believe（虛幻，假想）.

But their thinking is based on intuition（直覺）and still not completely logical. They cannot yet grasp more complex concepts such as cause and effect, time, and comparison.

處于前運算階段的兒童會將感知動作內化為表象，建立了符號的功能，可憑借心理符號（主要是表象）進行思維，從而使思維有了質的飛躍。而內化事物和動作并不是把事物和動作簡單地全部接受下來而形成一個攝影或副本。內化事實上是把感覺運動所經(jīng)歷的東西在自己的大腦中再建構，舍棄無關的細節(jié)形成表象。

內化的動作是思想上的動作而不是具體的軀體動作。雖然這個時期的兒童還不能理解更復雜的的因果聯(lián)系等抽象邏輯概念，但內化的產(chǎn)生也是兒童智力的重大進步。但是此時的兒童完全以自己的身體和動作為中心，從自己的立場和觀點去認識事物，而不能從客觀的、他人的觀點去認識事物。

3. Concrete Operational Stage — Ages 7 to 12 具體運算階段

At this time, elementary-age and preadolescent children -- ages 7 to 11 -- demonstrate logical, concrete reasoning.

Children's thinking becomes less egocentric（自我中心） and they are increasingly aware of external events. They begin to realize that one's own thoughts and feelings are unique and may not be shared by others or may not even be part of reality.

During the Concrete Operational Stage, children gradually develop the ability to 'conserve'(守恒), or learn that objects are not always the way that they appear to be. This occurs when children are able to take in many different aspects of an object, simply through looking at it. Children are able to begin to imagine different scenarios, or 'what if' something were to happen. This is because they now have more 'operational' thought.

Once children have learnt to conserve, they learn about 'reversibility'（可逆性）. This means that they learn that if things are changed, they will still be the same as they used to be. For example, they learn that if they spread out the pile of blocks, there are still as many there as before, even though it looks different.

During this stage, however, most children still can't think abstractly or hypothetically.

在具體運算階段內，兒童逐漸減少了自我中心的意識，認知結構由前運算階段的表象圖式演化為運算圖式，他們的思維運算必須有具體的事物支持，有些問題在具體事物的幫助下可以順利獲得解決。同時開始逐漸具有“守恒”和“可逆”的概念。兒童會發(fā)現(xiàn)指物體的形式（主要是外部特征）起了變化，但他們仍能認識到物體的量（或內部性質）并未改變。

4. Formal Operational Stage — Adolescence through adulthood 形式運算階段

Adolescents who reach this fourth stage of intellectual development -- usually at age 11-plus -- are able to logically use symbols related to abstract concepts, such as algebra and science. They can think about multiple variables in systematic（有系統(tǒng)的） ways, formulate（公式化） hypotheses, and consider possibilities. They also can ponder abstract relationships and concepts such as justice.

在形式運算階段，兒童思維發(fā)展到抽象邏輯推理水平。他們能在頭腦中把形式和內容分開，使思維超出所感知的具體事物或形象。同時他們也能夠擺脫現(xiàn)實的影響，關注假設的命題，可以對假設命題做出邏輯的和富有創(chuàng)造性的反映，即“假設——演繹”推理。

Piaget acknowledged that some children may pass through the stages at different ages than the averages noted above and that some children may show characteristics of more than one stage at a given time. But he insisted that cognitive development always follows this sequence, that stages cannot be skipped, and that each stage is marked by new intellectual abilities and a more complex understanding of the world.

皮亞杰認為，不同兒童經(jīng)歷這四個階段的年齡段和時間是不同的，但他堅持認為，兒童的意識發(fā)展必須經(jīng)歷這幾個步驟，且每個步驟是不能缺少或跳過的。而處于不同認知發(fā)展階段的兒童，其認識和解釋事物的方式與成人是有別的，因此要了解并根據(jù)兒童的認知方式來進行引導和教育。

皮亞杰認為教育的真正目的并非增加兒童的知識，而是設置充滿智慧刺激的環(huán)境，讓兒童自行探索，主動學到知識。

【福利時間】送上耶魯心理公開課，聽聽世界名校的心理學教授是如何生動講解兒童發(fā)展心理學的，以后再看到相關的托�；蜓潘嫉拈喿x文章時，相信小伙伴們一定會更容易理解相關內容了。

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