The geologic timescale is marked by significant geologic and biological events, including the origin of Earth about 4.6 billion years ago, the origin of life about 3.5 billion years ago, the origin of eukaryotic life-forms (living things that have cells with true nuclei) about 1.5 billion years ago, and the origin of animals about 0.6 billion years ago. The last event marks the beginning of the Cambrian period. Animals originated relatively late in the history of Earth—in only the last 10 percent of Earth’s history. During a geologically brief 100-million-year period, all modern animal groups (along with other animals that are now extinct) evolved. This rapid origin and diversification of animals is often referred to as “the Cambrian explosion.”
Scientists have asked important questions about this explosion for more than a century. Why did it occur so late in the history of Earth? The origin of multicellular forms of life seems a relatively simple step compared to the origin of life itself. Why does the fossil record not document the series of evolutionary changes during the evolution of animals? Why did animal life evolve so quickly? Paleontologists continue to search the fossil record for answers to these questions.
One interpretation regarding the absence of fossils during this important 100-million-year period is that early animals were soft bodied and simply did not fossilize. Fossilization of soft-bodied animals is less likely than fossilization of hard-bodied animals, but it does occur. Conditions that promote fossilization of soft-bodied animals include very rapid covering by sediments that create an environment that discourages decomposition. In fact, fossil beds containing soft-bodied animals have been known for many years.
The Ediacara fossil formation, which contains the oldest known animal fossils, consists exclusively of soft-bodied forms. Although named after a site in Australia, the Ediacara formation is worldwide in distribution and dates to Precambrian times. This 700-million-year-old formation gives few clues to the origins of modern animals, however, because paleontologists believe it represents an evolutionary experiment that failed. It contains no ancestors of modern animal groups.
A slightly younger fossil formation containing animal remains is the Tommotian formation, named after a locale in Russia. It dates to the very early Cambrian period, and it also contains only soft-bodied forms. At one time, the animals present in these fossil beds were assigned to various modern animal groups, but most paleontologists now agree that all Tommotian fossils represent unique body forms that arose in the early Cambrian period and disappeared before the end of the period, leaving no descendants in modern animal groups.
A third fossil formation containing both soft-bodied and hard-bodied animals provides evidence of the result of the Cambrian explosion. This fossil formation, called the Burgess Shale, is in Yoho National Park in the Canadian Rocky Mountains of British Columbia. Shortly after the Cambrian explosion, mud slides rapidly buried thousands of marine animals under conditions that favored fossilization. These fossil beds provide evidence of about 32 modern animal groups, plus about 20 other animal body forms that are so different from any modern animals that they cannot be assigned to any one of the modern groups. These unassignable animals include a large swimming predator called Anomalocaris and a soft-bodied animal called Wiwaxia, which ate detritus or algae. The Burgess Shale formation also has fossils of many extinct representatives of modern animal groups. For example, a well-known Burgess Shale animal called Sidneyia is a representative of a previously unknown group of arthropods (a category of animals that includes insects, spiders, mites, and crabs).
Fossil formations like the Burgess Shale show that evolution cannot always be thought of as a slow progression. The Cambrian explosion involved rapid evolutionary diversification, followed by the extinction of many unique animals. Why was this evolution so rapid? No one really knows. Many zoologists believe that it was because so many ecological niches were available with virtually no competition from existing species. Will zoologists ever know the evolutionary sequences in the Cambrian explosion? Perhaps another ancient fossil bed of soft-bodied animals from 600-million-year-old seas is awaiting discovery.
Paragraph 1: The geologic timescale is marked by significant geologic and biological events, including the origin of Earth about 4.6 billion years ago, the origin of life about 3.5 billion years ago, the origin of eukaryotic life-forms (living things that have cells with true nuclei) about 1.5 billion years ago, and the origin of animals about 0.6 billion years ago. The last event marks the beginning of the Cambrian period. Animals originated relatively late in the history of Earth—in only the last 10 percent of Earth’s history. During a geologically brief 100-million-year period, all modern animal groups (along with other animals that are now extinct) evolved. This rapid origin and diversification of animals is often referred to as “the Cambrian explosion.”
1. The word “significant” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○ numerous
○ important
○ unexplained
○ sudden
2. The word “relatively” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○ surprisingly
○ collectively
○ comparatively
○ characteristically
3. The word “diversification” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○ emergence of many varieties
○ steady decline in number
○ gradual increase in body size
○ sudden disappearance
Paragraph 2: Scientists have asked important questions about this explosion for more than a century. Why did it occur so late in the history of Earth? The origin of multicellular forms of life seems a relatively simple step compared to the origin of life itself. Why does the fossil record not document the series of evolutionary changes during the evolution of animals? Why did animal life evolve so quickly? Paleontologists continue to search the fossil record for answers to these questions.
4. The period discussed in the passage is referred to as an “explosion” because it
○ occurred 0.6 billion years ago, late in Earth’s history
○ was characterized by the unusually fast evolution of many new life-forms
○ was characterized by widespread animal extinction
○ was characterized by violent volcanic eruptions
5. According to Paragraph2, which of the following is NOT a question that paleontologists asked about the Cambrian explosion?
○ Why was the origin of life a simple step in Earth’s history?
○ Why did it take so long for multicellular organisms to develop?
○ Why did animal life evolve so rapidly?
○ Why does the fossil record lack evidence of animal evolution during that time?
6. Which of the following best describes the relationship between paragraph 2 and paragraph 3?
○ Paragraph 2 puts forward several scientific claims, one of which is rejected in paragraph 3.
○ Paragraph 2 poses several questions, and paragraph 3 offers a possible answer to one of them.
○ Paragraph 2 presents outdated traditional views, while paragraph 3 presents the current scientific conclusions.
○ Paragraph 2 introduces a generalization that is illustrated by specific examples in paragraph 3.
Paragraph 3: One interpretation regarding the absence of fossils during this important 100-million-year period is that early animals were soft-bodied and simply did not fossilize. Fossilization of soft-bodied animals is less likely than fossilization of hard-bodied animals, but it does occur. Conditions that promote fossilization of soft-bodied animals include very rapid covering by sediments that create an environment that discourages decomposition. In fact, fossil beds containing soft-bodied animals have been known for many years.
7. The word “promote” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○ complicate
○ prevent
○ encourage
○ affect
Paragraph 4: The Ediacara fossil formation, which contains the oldest known animal fossils, consists exclusively of soft-bodied forms. Although named after a site in Australia, the Ediacara formation is worldwide in distribution and dates to Precambrian times. This 700-million-year-old formation gives few clues to the origins of modern animals, however, because paleontologists believe it represents an evolutionary experiment that failed. It contains no ancestors of modern animal groups.
8. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 4 as being true of the Ediacara formation?
○ It contains fossils that date back to the Precambrian period.
○ It contains only soft-bodied animal fossils.
○ It is located on a single site in Australia.
○ It does not contain any fossils of the ancestors of modern animals.
Paragraph 5: A slightly younger fossil formation containing animal remains is the Tommotian formation, named after a locale in Russia. It dates to the very early Cambrian period, and it also contains only soft-bodied forms. At one time, the animals present in these fossil beds were assigned to various modern animal groups, but most paleontologists now agree that all Tommotian fossils represent unique body forms that arose in the early Cambrian period and disappeared before the end of the period, leaving no descendants in modern animal groups.
9. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
○ The animals found in the Tommotian fossil bed were once thought to belong to a variety of modern animal groups, but now they are thought to have descended from a single group.
○ Animals in the Tommotian fossil beds were initially assigned to modern animal groups but are now thought to belong to groups that emerged and died out during the Cambrian period.
○ Though at first they thought otherwise, paleontologists now agree that the animals in the Tommotian have body forms from which modern animals have descended.
○ It is unclear whether the Tommotian fossils from the early Cambrian period represent unique body forms or whether they should be assigned to various modern animal groups.
Paragraph 6: A third fossil formation containing both soft-bodied and hard-bodied animals provides evidence of the result of the Cambrian explosion. This fossil formation, called the Burgess Shale, is in Yoho National Park in the Canadian Rocky Mountains of British Columbia. Shortly after the Cambrian explosion, mud slides rapidly buried thousands of marine animals under conditions that favored fossilization. These fossil beds provide evidence of about 32 modern animal groups, plus about 20 other animal body forms that are so different from any modern animals that they cannot be assigned to any one of the modern groups. These unassignable animals include a large swimming predator called Anomalocaris and a soft-bodied animal called Wiwaxia, which ate detritus or algae. The Burgess Shale formation also has fossils of many extinct representatives of modern animal groups. For example, a well-known Burgess Shale animal called Sidneyia is a representative of a previously unknown group of arthropods (a category of animals that includes insects, spiders, mites, and crabs).
10. Why does the author mention “Anomalocans” and “Wiwaxia”?
○ To contrast predators with animals that eat plants such as algae
○ To question the effects of rapid mud slides on fossilization
○ To suggest that much is still unknown about animals found in the Burgess Shale
○ To provide examples of fossils that cannot be assigned to a modern animal group
11. “Sidneyia” is an example of
○ a relative of Anomalocaris and Wiwaxia
○ a previously unknown Burgess Shale animal
○ an extinct member of a currently existing category of animals
○ an animal that cannot be assigned to any modern animal group
Paragraph 7: Fossil formations like the Burgess Shale show that evolution cannot always be thought of as a slow progression. The Cambrian explosion involved rapid evolutionary diversification, followed by the extinction of many unique animals. Why was this evolution so rapid? No one really knows. Many zoologists believe that it was because so many ecological niches were available with virtually no competition from existing species. Will zoologists ever know the evolutionary sequences in the Cambrian explosion? Perhaps another ancient fossil bed of soft-bodied animals from 600-million-year-old seas is awaiting discovery.
12. What can be inferred from paragraph 7 about why the Cambrian explosion is so unusual?
○ It generated new ecological niches through the extinction of many unique animals.
○ It was a period of rapid evolution, and evolution is often thought of as a slow process.
○ It is a period whose evolutionary sequences are clearly marked.
○ It generated a very large number of ancient fossil beds containing soft-bodied animals.
Paragraph 3: One interpretation regarding the absence of fossils during this important 100-million-year period is that early animals were soft bodied and simply did not fossilize. ■Fossilization of soft-bodied animals is less likely than fossilization of hard-bodied animals, but it does occur. ■Conditions that promote fossilization of soft-bodied animals include very rapid covering by sediments that create an environment that discourages decomposition. ■In fact, fossil beds containing soft-bodied animals have been known for many years. ■
13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
It is relatively rare because the fossilization of soft-bodied animals requires a special environment.
Where could the sentence best fit?
14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
The term “Cambrian explosion” refers to the geologically brief period during which all modern animal groups evolved.
●
●
●
Answer Choices
○Little is known about the stages of evolution during the Cambrian period, in part because early animals were soft bodied and could fossilize only under particular conditions.
○While animal fossils from before the Cambrian explosion have no modern descendants, many animals that evolved during the Cambrian explosion can be assigned to modern groups.
○The Cambrian period is significant because it marks the emergence of eukaryotic life-forms—organisms that have cells with true nuclei.
○The Ediacara fossil formation provides the most information about the Cambrian explosion, while the earlier, Tommotian and Burgess Shale formations give clues about Precambrian evolution.
○Zoologists are awaiting the discovery of a 600-million-year-old fossil formation in order to be able to form a theory of how animal evolution progressed.
○Although the reasons for the rapid evolution of animals during the Cambrian period are not known, one proposed explanation is an abundance of niches with a lack of competitors.
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14. Little is known about the…
While animal fossils…
Although the reasons for the…
寒武紀(jì)大爆發(fā)
地質(zhì)年代是由重大地質(zhì)事件和生物事件標(biāo)記的，包括46億年前地球的形成、35億年前生命的起源、15億年前真核生物（細(xì)胞中有真核的生命體）的起源以及6億年前動(dòng)物的起源；最近的一個(gè)事件標(biāo)志著寒武紀(jì)的開始。動(dòng)物的起源相對(duì)處于地球歷史的晚期——僅存在于地球歷史時(shí)間的1∕10。在短暫的1億年地質(zhì)學(xué)周期中，所有現(xiàn)代動(dòng)物群（包括現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)滅絕的生物）進(jìn)化了。這次快速的動(dòng)物起源和分化常常被稱為“寒武紀(jì)大爆發(fā)”。
一個(gè)多世紀(jì)以來(lái)，科學(xué)家們對(duì)這次大爆發(fā)一直有疑惑。為什么它發(fā)生的得這么晚？多細(xì)胞生物的出現(xiàn)相對(duì)于生命的出現(xiàn)而言則是一次相對(duì)簡(jiǎn)單的進(jìn)化。為什么化石沒有記錄下動(dòng)物演化的一系列變化呢？為什么動(dòng)物生命進(jìn)化得如此迅速呢？古生物學(xué)家們?nèi)耘f在研究化石記錄以期回答這些問(wèn)題。
關(guān)于這重要的1億年內(nèi)化石的缺失，有一種解釋是早期的動(dòng)物都是軟體動(dòng)物，它們很難形成化石。軟體動(dòng)物的化石比硬體動(dòng)物化石少見得多，但是也是存在的。促使軟體動(dòng)物成為化石的條件是沉積物的迅速覆蓋以形成一個(gè)抑制分解的環(huán)境。事實(shí)上，含有軟體動(dòng)物的化石層在很多年以前就已經(jīng)為人們所知了。
含有最古老的動(dòng)物化石的伊迪卡拉化石群就全部由軟體動(dòng)物化石組成。盡管伊迪卡拉是以澳大利亞的一處地名而命名，但是伊迪卡拉沉積層的分布卻遍及世界各地，并且可以追溯到前寒武紀(jì)時(shí)期。這些7億年前形成的地層為現(xiàn)代動(dòng)物的起源提供了一些新的線索。因?yàn)楣派飳W(xué)家們認(rèn)為它代表著一次失敗的進(jìn)化試驗(yàn)，其中并沒有包含任何現(xiàn)代動(dòng)物的祖先。
以俄羅斯的一處地名而命名的Tommotian是一層包含動(dòng)物殘骸的較年輕的化石層。它形成于寒武紀(jì)的早期，并且同樣只含有軟體動(dòng)物化石。在一段時(shí)間內(nèi)，人們認(rèn)為這些化石中的動(dòng)物分化出了各種各樣的現(xiàn)代動(dòng)物。但是古生物學(xué)家們現(xiàn)在卻認(rèn)為，所有的Tommotian化石都僅代表在寒武紀(jì)初期出現(xiàn)但到寒武紀(jì)結(jié)束時(shí)就消失了的特別生物。所以它們沒有在現(xiàn)在動(dòng)物中留下后代。
第三種化石層既包含了軟體動(dòng)物也包含了硬體動(dòng)物，它為寒武紀(jì)大爆發(fā)提供了證據(jù)。這種叫做伯吉斯頁(yè)巖的化石群就在加拿大的大不列顛哥倫比亞石山上的約霍國(guó)家公園內(nèi)。在寒武紀(jì)大爆發(fā)后不久，滑落的泥土迅速掩埋了成千上萬(wàn)的海洋動(dòng)物，形成了極有利于化石形成的環(huán)境。這些化石層含有大約32種現(xiàn)代動(dòng)物，還有大約20種與現(xiàn)在動(dòng)物截然不同以至于不可能分類為任何一種現(xiàn)代動(dòng)物的其他動(dòng)物體。這些無(wú)法劃分的動(dòng)物包含一種叫做奇蝦的肉食動(dòng)物和一種叫做威瓦亞蟲的以巖屑和藻類為食的軟體動(dòng)物。伯吉斯頁(yè)巖化石群也含有很多現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)滅絕了的動(dòng)物化石。例如伯吉斯頁(yè)巖化石群中的一種著名動(dòng)物，Sidneyia，就是一種典型的以前還不為人知的節(jié)肢動(dòng)物（一種動(dòng)物分類，它包括昆蟲、蜘蛛、螨蟲和螃蟹）。
像伯吉斯頁(yè)巖化石群這樣的化石層表明進(jìn)化不能總是被認(rèn)為是緩慢的過(guò)程。寒武紀(jì)大爆涉及到了快速的進(jìn)化分化，接著就是很多獨(dú)特動(dòng)物的滅絕。為什么這種進(jìn)化如此迅速呢？沒有人真正的明白。很多動(dòng)物學(xué)家認(rèn)為這是很多幾乎沒有任何競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性物種的環(huán)境使然。動(dòng)物學(xué)家們是否知道寒武紀(jì)大爆發(fā)的動(dòng)物的進(jìn)化順序呢？或許另一些含有來(lái)自于6億年前的海洋動(dòng)物的化石亟待發(fā)現(xiàn)。
