Pastoralism is a lifestyle in which economic activity is based primarily on livestock. Archaeological evidence suggests that by 3000 B.C., and perhaps even earlier, there had emerged on the steppes of Inner Eurasia the distinctive types of pastoralism that were to dominate the region's history for several millennia. Here, the horse was already becoming the animal of prestige in many regions, though sheep, goats, and cattle could also play a vital role. It is the use of horses for transportation and warfare that explains why Inner Eurasian pastoralism proved the most mobile and the most militaristic of all major forms of pastoralism. The emergence and spread of pastoralism had a profound impact on the history of Inner Eurasia, and also, indirectly, on the parts of Asia and Europe just outside this area. In particular, pastoralism favors a mobile lifestyle, and this mobility helps to explain the impact of pastoralist societies on this part of the world.
The mobility of pastoralist societies reflects their dependence on animal-based foods. While agriculturalists rely on domesticated plants, pastoralists rely on domesticated animals. As a result, pastoralists, like carnivores in general, occupy a higher position on the food chain. All else being equal, this means they must exploit larger areas of land than do agriculturalists to secure the same amount of food, clothing, and other necessities. So pastoralism is a more extensive lifeway than farming is. However, the larger the terrain used to support a group, the harder it is to exploit that terrain while remaining in one place. So, basic ecological principles imply a strong tendency within pastoralist lifeways toward nomadism (a mobile lifestyle). As the archaeologist Roger Cribb puts it, “The greater the degree of pastoralism, the stronger the tendency toward nomadism.” A modern Turkic nomad interviewed by Cribb commented: "The more animals you have, the farther you have to move."
Nomadism has further consequences. It means that pastoralist societies occupy and can influence very large territories. This is particularly true of the horse pastoralism that emerged in the Inner Eurasian steppes, for this was the most mobile of all major forms of pastoralism. So, it is no accident that with the appearance of pastoralist societies there appear large areas that share similar cultural, ecological, and even linguistic features. By the late fourth millennium B.C., there is already evidence of large culture zones reaching from Eastern Europe to the western borders of Mongolia. Perhaps the most striking sign of mobility is the fact that by the third millennium B.C., most pastoralists in this huge region spoke related languages ancestral to the modern Indo-European languages. The remarkable mobility and range of pastoral societies explain, in part, why so many linguists have argued that the Indo-European languages began their astonishing expansionist career not among farmers in Anatolia (present-day Turkey), but among early pastoralists from Inner Eurasia. Such theories imply that the Indo-European languages evolved not in Neolithic (10,000 to 3,000 B.C.) Anatolia, but among the foraging communities of the cultures in the region of the Don and Dnieper rivers, which took up stock breeding and began to exploit the neighboring steppes.
hereditary hierarchies that are usually implied by the use of the term class. Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills.
Paragraph 1: Pastoralism is a lifestyle in which economic activity is based primarily on livestock. Archaeological evidence suggests that by 3000 B.C., and perhaps even earlier, there had emerged on the steppes of Inner Eurasia the distinctive types of pastoralism that were to dominate the region's history for several millennia. Here, the horse was already becoming the animal of prestige in many regions, though sheep, goats, and cattle could also play a vital role. It is the use of horses for transportation and warfare that explains why Inner Eurasian pastoralism proved the most mobile and the most militaristic of all major forms of pastoralism. The emergence and spread of pastoralism had a profound impact on the history of Inner Eurasia, and also, indirectly, on the parts of Asia and Europe just outside this area. In particular, pastoralism favors a mobile lifestyle, and this mobility helps to explain the impact of pastoralist societies on this part of the world.
1. The word “prestige” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○interest
○status
○demand
○profit
2. According to paragraph 1, what made it possible for Inner Eurasian pastoralism to become the most mobile and militaristic form of pastoralism?
○It involved the domestication of several types of animals.
○It was based primarily on horses rather than on other animals.
○It borrowed and improved upon European ideas for mobility and warfare.
○It could be adapted to a wide variety of environments.
3. The word “profound” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○strange
○positive
○direct
○far-reaching
Paragraph 2: The mobility of pastoralist societies reflects their dependence on animal-based foods. While agriculturalists rely on domesticated plants, pastoralists rely on domesticated animals. As a result, pastoralists, like carnivores in general, occupy a higher position on the food chain. All else being equal, this means they must exploit larger areas of land than do agriculturalists to secure the same amount of food, clothing, and other necessities. So pastoralism is a more extensive lifeway than farming is. However, the larger the terrain used to support a group, the harder it is to exploit that terrain while remaining in one place. So, basic ecological principles imply a strong tendency within pastoralist lifeways toward nomadism (a mobile lifestyle). As the archaeologist Roger Cribb puts it, “The greater the degree of pastoralism, the stronger the tendency toward nomadism.” A modern Turkic nomad interviewed by Cribb commented: "The more animals you have, the farther you have to move."
4. In paragraph 2, why does the author contrast pastoralists with agriculturalists?
○To explain why pastoralism requires more land than agriculturalism to support basic needs
○To identify some advantages that mobile societies have over immobile societies
○To demonstrate that ecological principles that apply to pastoralism do not apply to agriculturalism
○To argue that agriculturalism eventually developed out of pastoralism
5. According to paragraph 2, pastoralists tend to
○prefer grazing their animals on agricultural lands
○consume comparatively large amounts of food and clothing
○avoid eating plant foods
○move from place to place frequently
Paragraph 3: Nomadism has further consequences. It means that pastoralist societies occupy and can influence very large territories. This is particularly true of the horse pastoralism that emerged in the Inner Eurasian steppes, for this was the most mobile of all major forms of pastoralism. So, it is no accident that with the appearance of pastoralist societies there appear large areas that share similar cultural, ecological, and even linguistic features. By the late fourth millennium B.C., there is already evidence of large culture zones reaching from Eastern Europe to the western borders of Mongolia. Perhaps the most striking sign of mobility is the fact that by the third millennium B.C., most pastoralists in this huge region spoke related languages ancestral to the modern Indo-European languages. The remarkable mobility and range of pastoral societies explain, in part, why so many linguists have argued that the Indo-European languages began their astonishing expansionist career not among farmers in Anatolia (present-day Turkey), but among early pastoralists from Inner Eurasia. Such theories imply that the Indo-European languages evolved not in Neolithic (10,000 to 3,000 B.C.) Anatolia, but among the foraging communities of the cultures in the region of the Don and Dnieper rivers, which took up stock breeding and began to exploit the neighboring steppes.
6. In paragraph 3, why does the author discuss languages spoken in the region spanning from Eastern Europe to the western borders of Mongolia?
○To emphasize the frequency with which Indo-European languages changed as a result of the mobile nature of pastoralism
○To indicate one method linguists use to determine that inhabitants of the Don and Dnieper river area had taken up stock breeding
○To provide evidence that Indo-European languages have their roots in what is now Turkey
○To provide evidence that pastoralist societies can exercise cultural influence over a large area
7. The word "striking” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○reliable
○noticeable
○convincing
○violent
8. The word "exploit” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○use to advantage
○depart from
○pay attention to
○travel across
Paragraph 4: Nomadism also subjects pastoralist communities to strict rules of portability. If you are constantly on the move, you cannot afford to accumulate large material surpluses. Such rules limit variations in accumulated material goods between pastoralist households (though they may also encourage a taste for portable goods of high value such as silks or jewelry). So, by and large, nomadism implies a high degree of self-sufficiency and inhibits the appearance of an extensive division of labor. Inequalities of wealth and rank certainly exist, and have probably existed in most pastoralist societies, but except in periods of military conquest, they are normally too slight to generate the stable, hereditary hierarchies that are usually implied by the use of the term class. Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills.
9. According to paragraph 4, the fact that pastoralist communities are subject to “strict rules of portability” encourages such communities to
○relocate less frequently than they would otherwise
○have households that are more or less equal in wealth
○become self-sufficient in the manufacture of silk and jewelry
○share large material surpluses with neighboring communities
10. According to paragraph 4, all of the following are true of social inequality in pastoralist societies EXCEPT:
○It exists and has existed to some degree in most pastoral societies.
○It is most marked during periods of military conquest.
○It is expressed in the form of a rigid hierarchy based largely on heredity.
○It is usually too insignificant to be discussed in terms of class differences.
11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
○Despite the fact that wealth is relatively evenly distributed in pastoral societies, gender inequality still exists because only men can acquire military skills and social status.
○Inequalities of gender existed in pastoralist societies until most communities began to require women to possess the same skills as men and take part in the military.
○Inequalities of gender in pastoralist societies were caused by steep hierarchies of wealth and differences in military training between men and women.
○In pastoral societies, gender inequality is comparatively mild because wealth is relatively evenly distributed and women have to learn most of the same skills that men do.
Paragraph 4: Nomadism also subjects pastoralist communities to strict rules of portability. ■If you are constantly on the move, you cannot afford to accumulate large material surpluses. ■Such rules limit variations in accumulated material goods between pastoralist households (though they may also encourage a taste for portable goods of high value such as silks or jewelry). ■So, by and large, nomadism implies a high degree of self-sufficiency and inhibits the appearance of an extensive division of labor. ■Inequalities of wealth and rank certainly exist, and have probably existed in most pastoralist societies, but except in periods of military conquest, they are normally too slight to generate the stable, hereditary hierarchies that are usually implied by the use of the term class. Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills.
12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage
There is a good reason for this.
Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.
13. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
By 3000 B.C., a distinctive form of pastoralism had appeared on the steppes of Inner Eurasia.
●
●
●
Answer Choices
○The domesticated horse is primarily responsible for Inner Eurasian pastoralism's success in mobility and warfare.
○As pastoralists traveled across large areas of terrain with their domesticated animals, they traded valuable material goods such as silks and jewelry.
○B(yǎng)ecause pastoralists are highly mobile, they tend to have few material possessions and can influence the culture, ecology, and language of very large areas.
○a great deal of land to support its animal-based lifeway, pastoralists must continually relocate and have comparatively egalitarian societies.
○Most scholars now believe that Indo-European languages probably evolved during the Neolithic period in the region of the Don and Dnieper rivers.
○Pastoralist communities do not have social classes in the usual sense because they value spiritual attainment over material wealth.
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參考答案：
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2. ○2
3. ○4
4. ○1
5. ○4
6. ○4
7. ○2
8.○1
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11. ○4
12. ○1
13. The domesticated horse…
Because pastoralists are…
Because pastoralism requires…
畜牧是一種靠飼養(yǎng)家畜獲利的生活方式�？脊刨Y料表明，早在公元前3 000年甚至更早的時(shí)候，位于歐亞大陸內(nèi)部的西伯利亞大草原上已經(jīng)出現(xiàn)了一些能夠主導(dǎo)這些地區(qū)歷史長(zhǎng)達(dá)幾千年的獨(dú)特的畜牧類型。在這里，盡管綿羊、山羊和牛扮演了非常重要的角色，但是馬已經(jīng)在許多地區(qū)成為具有優(yōu)勢(shì)地位的動(dòng)物。正是馬在交通運(yùn)輸和戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)中的使用解釋了為什么歐亞大陸內(nèi)部的畜牧被證明是所有重要畜牧形式中最不固定和最具軍事性的一種。畜牧的出現(xiàn)和傳播對(duì)歐亞大陸內(nèi)陸的歷史產(chǎn)生了深遠(yuǎn)的影響，同時(shí)，也間接地影響了該地區(qū)以外的部分亞洲和歐洲地區(qū)。特別是，畜牧青睞流動(dòng)的生活方式，這種流動(dòng)性可以解釋畜牧社會(huì)對(duì)部分世界的影響。
畜牧社會(huì)的流動(dòng)性反映出他們非常依賴以動(dòng)物為基礎(chǔ)的食物。如果說(shuō)農(nóng)業(yè)依靠人工種植作物，那么畜牧業(yè)就依賴于飼養(yǎng)動(dòng)物。因此，牧民和食肉動(dòng)物一樣，在食物鏈中處于一個(gè)更高的位置。其他方面相同的情況下，這就意味著如果他們要保證與農(nóng)業(yè)相同的食物、衣物以及其他生活必需品，他們就必須開(kāi)拓出比農(nóng)業(yè)更大的區(qū)域。因此，畜牧業(yè)是一種比農(nóng)業(yè)更寬泛的生活方式。但是，支撐一個(gè)群體的土地越大，在原有土地基礎(chǔ)上繼續(xù)開(kāi)發(fā)的困難也就越大。所以，基本的生態(tài)學(xué)原理意味著畜牧主義生活方式向游牧主義生活方式轉(zhuǎn)變的強(qiáng)大趨勢(shì)。正如考古學(xué)家Roger Cribb 指出的，“畜牧化的程度越高，向游牧化轉(zhuǎn)變的趨勢(shì)就越明顯。”。與Cribb交談過(guò)的一位現(xiàn)代土耳其游牧民說(shuō)：“擁有的牲畜越多，你就得移動(dòng)的更遠(yuǎn)。”
游牧生活有著更深遠(yuǎn)的影響。它意味著畜牧社會(huì)占據(jù)并且影響著大片地區(qū)。特別是在歐洲內(nèi)陸的西伯利亞大草原上，以馬為畜牧對(duì)象的出現(xiàn)更具重大意義，因?yàn)樗谒行竽翗I(yè)中移動(dòng)性最強(qiáng)。因此，畜牧社會(huì)在較大地域中分享類似的文化、生態(tài)甚至語(yǔ)言特點(diǎn)并非偶然現(xiàn)象。在公元前 4 000年后期，已經(jīng)有證據(jù)顯示存在著一個(gè)從東歐延伸到蒙古邊境的大文化圈�？赡茉谝苿�(dòng)性方面最具說(shuō)服力的標(biāo)志是，公元前3 000年在這片廣袤的土地上大部分牧民講的相關(guān)語(yǔ)言，現(xiàn)代印歐語(yǔ)系就從中發(fā)展而來(lái)。這種顯著的移動(dòng)性和畜牧社會(huì)的地理范圍在某種程度上解釋了很多語(yǔ)言學(xué)家一直爭(zhēng)論的一個(gè)問(wèn)題：為什么印歐語(yǔ)系并非從并安納托利亞（現(xiàn)在的土耳其）的農(nóng)民中傳播開(kāi)來(lái)的，而是產(chǎn)生于早期歐洲內(nèi)陸的牧民。這些理論說(shuō)明印歐語(yǔ)系不是從新石器時(shí)代（公元前一萬(wàn)年到公元前三千年之間）的安納托利亞發(fā)展而來(lái)，而是在頓河和第聶伯河流域內(nèi)從事家畜飼養(yǎng)、開(kāi)發(fā)毗鄰的西伯利亞大草原的畜牧群體中發(fā)展而來(lái)。
游牧也同樣受制于畜牧群體中的嚴(yán)格的可移植性規(guī)則。如果你頻繁遷移，就難以負(fù)擔(dān)大量的盈余物資。這樣的規(guī)則限制了牧民家用物資的多樣性積累（盡管他們也鼓勵(lì)積累價(jià)值高的便攜物品，如絲綢和珠寶）。所以，大體上來(lái)說(shuō)，游牧民族高度自給自足并且抑制粗放式勞動(dòng)分工。當(dāng)然，不平等的財(cái)富和社會(huì)地位確實(shí)存在，而且可能存在于絕大多數(shù)畜牧社會(huì)里。但是除了戰(zhàn)亂時(shí)期，他們由于太過(guò)弱小難以形成通常的穩(wěn)定、世襲的統(tǒng)治階級(jí)。畜牧社會(huì)里同樣存在性別歧視，但是由于大多數(shù)群體中缺少嚴(yán)格的財(cái)富等級(jí)制度，而且婦女具備男人的大部分技能，通常還有軍事作戰(zhàn)技能，所以這種不公平已經(jīng)弱化。
安納托利亞（Anatolia），地區(qū)名。又名小亞細(xì)亞或西亞美尼亞，是亞洲西南部的一個(gè)半島，位于黑海和地中海之間�，F(xiàn)時(shí)安納托利亞的全境屬于土耳其。但亞美尼亞及爭(zhēng)取獨(dú)立的庫(kù)爾德斯坦都宣稱擁有該半島的部份主權(quán)。
俄羅斯境內(nèi)歷史上有名的河流。俄羅斯歐洲部分的第三大河（部分支流在烏克蘭境內(nèi)）。
第聶伯河是俄羅斯歐洲部分的第二大河，歐洲第三大河。源出俄羅斯瓦爾代丘陵南麓，第聶伯河南南流經(jīng)白俄羅斯、烏克蘭，注入黑海。
