The Sahara is a highly diverse, albeit dry, region that has undergone major climatic changes since 10,000 B.C. As recently as 6,000 B.C. the southern frontier of the desert was far to the north of where it is now, while semiarid grassland and shallow freshwater lakes covered much of what are now arid plains. This was a landscape where antelope of all kinds abounded----along with Bos primigenius, a kind of oxen that has become extinct. The areas that are now desert were, like all arid regions, very susceptible to cycles of higher and lower levels of rainfall, resulting in major, sudden changes in distributions of plants and animals. The people who hunted the sparse desert animals responded to drought by managing the wild resources they hunted and gathered, especially wild oxen, which had to have regular water supplies to survive.
Even before the drought, the Sahara was never well watered. Both humans and animals were constantly on the move, in search of food and reliable water supplies. Under these circumstances, archaeologist Andrew Smith believes, the small herds of Bos primigenius in the desert became smaller, more closely knit breeding units as the drought took hold. The beasts were more disciplined, so that it was easier for hunters to predict their habits, and capture animals at will. At the same time, both cattle and humans were more confined in their movements, staying much closer to permanent water supplies for long periods of time. As a result, cattle and humans came into close association.
Smith believes that the hunters were well aware of the more disciplined ways in which their prey behaved. Instead of following the cattle on their annual migrations, the hunters began to prevent the herd from moving from one spot to another. At first, they controlled the movement of the herd while ensuring continuance of their meat diet. But soon they also gained genetic control of the animals, which led to rapid physical changes in the herd. South African farmers who maintain herds of wild eland (large African antelopes with short, twisted horns) report that the offspring soon diminish in size, unless wild bulls are introduced constantly from outside. The same effects of inbreeding may have occurred in controlled cattle populations, with some additional, and perhaps unrecognized, advantages. The newly domesticated animals behaved better, were easier to control, and may have enjoyed a higher birth rate, which in turn yielded greater milk supplies. We know from rock paintings deep in the Sahara that the herders were soon selecting breeding animals to produce offspring with different horn shapes and hide colors.
It is still unclear whether domesticated cattle were tamed independently in northern Africa or introduced to the continent from southwest Asia. Whatever the source of the original tamed herds might have been, it seems entirely likely that much the same process of juxtaposition (living side by side) and control occurred in both southwest Asia and northern Africa, and even in Europe, among peoples who had an intimate knowledge of the behavior of wild cattle. The experiments with domestication probably occurred in many places, as people living in ever-drier environments cast around for more predictable food supplies.
The cattle herders had only a few possessions: unsophisticated pots and polished adzes. They also hunted with bow and arrow. The Saharan people left a remarkable record of their lives painted on the walls of caves deep in the desert. Their artistic endeavors have been preserved in paintings of wild animals, cattle, goats, humans, and scenes of daily life that extend back perhaps to 5,000 B.C.. The widespread distribution of pastoral sites of this period suggests that the Saharans ranged their herds over widely separated summer and winter grazing grounds.
About 3,500 B.C., climatic conditions again deteriorated. The Sahara slowly became drier and lakes vanished. On the other hand, rainfall increased in the interior of western Africa, and the northern limit of the tsetse fly, an insect fatal to cattle, moved south. So the herders shifted south, following the major river systems into savanna regions. By this time, the Saharan people were probably using domestic crops, experimenting with such summer rainfall crops as sorghum and millet as they move out of areas where they could grow wheat, barley, and other Mediterranean crops.
[Glossary]
adzes: cutting tools with blades set at right angles to the handle.
Paragraph 1: The Sahara is a highly diverse, albeit dry, region that has undergone major climatic changes since 10,000 B.C. As recently as 6,000 B.C. the southern frontier of the desert was far to the north of where it is now, while semiarid grassland and shallow freshwater lakes covered much of what are now arid plains. This was a landscape where antelope of all kinds abounded----along with Bos primigenius, a kind of oxen that has become extinct. The areas that are now desert were, like all arid regions, very susceptible to cycles of higher and lower levels of rainfall, resulting in major, sudden changes in distributions of plants and animals. The people who hunted the sparse desert animals responded to drought by managing the wild resources they hunted and gathered, especially wild oxen, which had to have regular water supplies to survive.
1.According to paragraph 1, what was true of the Sahara region around 6,000 B.C.?
O Much less of it was desert than is now the case.
O Most areas that are now grassland were covered by shallow lakes.
O It had just undergone a major climatic change.
O Wild oxen and antelopes lived in separate parts of the region.
2.The word “albeit” in the passage is closest in meaning to
O usually
O almost
O though
O rather
3.According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true of all arid regions?
O They include at least some freshwater lakes.
O They have similar distributions of plants and animals.
O They are greatly affected by changes in the amount of rain they receive.
O They have frequent droughts that make it difficult to manage the wild resources.
Paragraph 2: Even before the drought, the Sahara was never well watered. Both humans and animals were constantly on the move, in search of food and reliable water supplies. Under these circumstances, archaeologist Andrew Smith believes, the small herds of Bos primigenius in the desert became smaller, more closely knit breeding units as the drought took hold. The beasts were more disciplined, so that it was easier for hunters to predict their habits, and capture animals at will. At the same time, both cattle and humans were more confined in their movements, staying much closer to permanent water supplies for long periods of time. As a result, cattle and humans came into close association.
4.Paragraph 2 supports which of the following ideas about wild oxen in the Sahara region after the drought took hold?
O They traveled in smaller herds.
O They were harder for hunters to capture.
O They tended to be significantly smaller in size.
O They moved along less predictable routes.
5.According to paragraph 2, what was it that brought cattle and humans into close association?
O The development of smaller breeding units within hers.
O Cattle and humans staying close to permanent water supplies for long period of time.
O The development of greater discipline among cattle.
O Cattle and humans constangly on the move searching for food and reliable water supplies.
Paragraph 3: Smith believes that the hunters were well aware of the more disciplined ways in which their prey behaved. Instead of following the cattle on their annual migrations, the hunters began to prevent the herd from moving from one spot to another. At first, they controlled the movement of the herd while ensuring continuance of their meat diet. But soon they also gained genetic control of the animals, which led to rapid physical changes in the herd. South African farmers who maintain herds of wild eland (large African antelopes with short, twisted horns) report that the offspring soon diminish in size, unless wild bulls are introduced constantly from outside. The same effects of inbreeding may have occurred in controlled cattle populations, with some additional, and perhaps unrecognized, advantages. The newly domesticated animals behaved better, were easier to control, and may have enjoyed a higher birth rate, which in turn yielded greater milk supplies. We know from rock paintings deep in the Sahara that the herders were soon selecting breeding animals to produce offspring with different horn shapes and hide colors.
6.Why does the author mention the “rock paintings deep in the Sahara”?
O To help explain why the hunters wanted to control the herds.
O To provide support for the idea that the herders soon gained genetic control of the cattle
O To show that the herders had artistic as well as practical abilities
O To argue that the herders soon began to value their cattle for more than food.
7.According to paragraph 3, all of the following statements were true of newly domesticated animals EXCEPT
O They were controlled more easily by the farmers.
O They produced a larger number of offspring.
O They produce more milk.
O They were larger in size.
Paragraph 4: It is still unclear whether domesticated cattle were tamed independently in northern Africa or introduced to the continent from southwest Asia. Whatever the source of the original tamed herds might have been, it seems entirely likely that much the same process of juxtaposition (living side by side) and control occurred in both southwest Asia and northern Africa, and even in Europe, among peoples who had an intimate knowledge of the behavior of wild cattle. The experiments with domestication probably occurred in many places, as people living in ever-drier environments cast around for more predictable food supplies.
8. .which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
O Regardless of where the first tamed herds came from, people tried to control them by living in juxtaposition with them.
O Regardless of where the first tamed herds came from, they resulted from the same process of juxtaposition and control by people who understood the behavior of wild cattle.
O People who had an intimate knowledge of the behavior of wild cattle moved closer together to cooperate in taming the herd, regardless of where they found them.
O The process of taming herds was certainly the same in southwest Asia, northern Africa, and Europe because people knew a lot about the behavior of wild cattle, regardless of where they lived.
Paragraph 5: The cattle herders had only a few possessions: unsophisticated pots and polished adzes. They also hunted with bow and arrow. The Saharan people left a remarkable record of their lives painted on the walls of caves deep in the desert. Their artistic endeavors have been preserved in paintings of wild animals, cattle, goats, humans, and scenes of daily life that extend back perhaps to 5,000 B.C.. The widespread distribution of pastoral sites of this period suggests that the Saharans ranged their herds over widely separated summer and winter grazing grounds.
9.According to paragraph 5, each of the following was true about the early Saharan people EXCEPT
O They had few possessions apart from cattle.
O After about 5,000 B.C., they lived primarily in caves that were located deep in the desert.
O Between the summer and winter seasons, they moved their herds over long distances.
O They painted animals and scenes of daily life on the walls of caves.
10.The word “endeavors” in the passage is closest in meaning to
O methods
O styles
O scenes
O efforts
Paragraph 6: About 3,500 B.C., climatic conditions again deteriorated. The Sahara slowly became drier and lakes vanished. On the other hand, rainfall increased in the interior of western Africa, and the northern limit of the tsetse fly, an insect fatal to cattle, moved south. So the herders shifted south, following the major river systems into savanna regions. By this time, the Saharan people were probably using domestic crops, experimenting with such summer rainfall crops as sorghum and millet as they move out of areas where they could grow wheat, barley, and other Mediterranean crops.
11.The word “deteriorated” in the passage is closest in meaning to
O became unstable
O caused hardship
O changed completely
O got worse
12.According to paragraph 6, what allowed the herders to shift south into the savanna regions after about 3,500 B.C.?
O They could easily grow Mediterranean crops in those regions.
O They could more easily domesticated sorghum and millet in those regions.
O The tsetse fly was no longer a problem in those regions.
O The river systems in those regions provided reliable sources of water in the summer.
Paragraph 3: Smith believes that the hunters were well aware of the more disciplined ways in which their prey behaved. ■Instead of following the cattle on their annual migrations, the hunters began to prevent the herd from moving from one spot to another. ■At first, they controlled the movement of the herd while ensuring continuance of their meat diet. ■But soon they also gained genetic control of the animals, which led to rapid physical changes in the herd. ■South African farmers who maintain herds of wild eland (large African antelopes with short, twisted horns) report that the offspring soon diminish in size, unless wild bulls are introduced constantly from outside. The same effects of inbreeding may have occurred in controlled cattle populations, with some additional, and perhaps unrecognized, advantages. The newly domesticated animals behaved better, were easier to control, and may have enjoyed a higher birth rate, which in turn yielded greater milk supplies. We know from rock paintings deep in the Sahara that the herders were soon selecting breeding animals to produce offspring with different horn shapes and hide colors.
13.Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
This knowledge enabled the hunters to adopt a different approach to hunting.
Where would the sentence best fit?
14 Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
As recently as 6,000 B.C., much of the Sahara region was semiarid grassland where humans hunted wild oxen and antelope.
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Answer Choices
O There was enough freshwater for Saharan peoples to move freely throughout the region without having to manage the resources they hunted and gathered.
O Once Saharans controlled the breeding of their cattle, the characteristics of the cattle changed rapidly, increasing their reproductive rate and milk production.
O Although the Saharan peoples were remarkably sophisticated artists, they had only a few simple possessions, like adzes and the bows and arrows they used for hunting.
O When the drying climate forced cattle and humans close to each other in areas with water supplies, humans gained control over the cattle and eventually domesticated them.
O Herders soon began selecting breeding animals to produce offspring with different horn shapes and hide colors, although the advantage of controlled inbreeding were not apparent to them at first.
O As the drought worsened around 3,500 B.C. and conditions for herders became more favorable to the south, the Saharan people moved into savanna regions, where they grew different crops.
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14. Once Saharans controlled the …
Although the Saharan peoples…
As the drought worsened around…
盡管干旱，撒哈拉的物種極其多樣，并自公元前10,000年前開始已經(jīng)歷了數(shù)次重大氣候變遷。直到公元前6,000年前，沙漠的南部邊界比現(xiàn)在的位置要靠北很多，那時半干旱的草原和淺淡水湖泊覆蓋了現(xiàn)在干旱的平原。這里曾經(jīng)是各種羚羊和一種已滅絕的野牛出沒的地方�，F(xiàn)在的沙漠地區(qū)，像所有干旱地區(qū)一樣，對降雨量的變化周期極為敏感，因而其動植物的分布變化巨大且迅速。依靠捕食稀少的沙漠動物的居民對待干旱的方式是管理他們捕捉和收集到的野生資源，尤其是需要可靠水源維持生命的野牛。
甚至在干旱之前，撒哈拉地區(qū)也從未有充足的水分。人類和野生動物都不停的遷徙，以尋找食物和可靠的水源。在這些情況下，考古學(xué)家Andrew Smith 認(rèn)為隨著干旱的持續(xù)，沙漠中野牛群會變成更小，組織更緊密的族群。獸群變得更加自律，因此獵人更容易預(yù)測他們的習(xí)性并隨意抓捕。同時，駱駝和人類的行動范圍進(jìn)一步靠近，在固定水源附近長期更親近的共處。結(jié)果駱駝和人類形成了緊密的聯(lián)合。
Smith相信獵人對獵物更加自律的行為了然于胸。獵人們不再跟隨駱駝進(jìn)行每年一度的遷徙而是開始阻止獸群的遷移。起初他們控制獸群的遷移以獲得持續(xù)的肉食來源。但很快他們能夠在遺傳上控制動物，使得獸群的體征迅速變化。南非牧養(yǎng)大羚羊（一種體型較大的非洲羚羊，它們的角短且扭曲）的農(nóng)民說如果不持續(xù)從野外引進(jìn)公羚羊則其后代體型迅速變小。近親繁殖的影響同樣發(fā)生在控制擁有某些額外的可能并未認(rèn)清的優(yōu)勢的駱駝數(shù)量上。最新馴化的動物更易控制，出生率也更高，而反過來也會提供更多奶源。我們從撒哈拉腹地的巖石繪畫可知牧民很快就選擇一些動物進(jìn)行繁殖以產(chǎn)生角和顏色不同的后代。
我們?nèi)詿o法知道駱駝是在北非獨立馴化的還是從東南亞引入的。不管馴化的獸群起源何處，東南亞和北非，甚至是歐洲的那些對野生駱駝的行為了然于胸的人們都可能經(jīng)過了同樣的和他們要馴化的動物毗鄰而居并逐漸控制它們的過程。隨著人們居住環(huán)境不斷干燥和食物供給的可預(yù)測性更強，馴化的嘗試很可能發(fā)生在很多地方。
駱駝牧養(yǎng)人的財產(chǎn)很少：一些并不精致的罐子和磨光的斧子。他們也利用弓箭捕獵。撒哈拉人在撒哈拉腹地洞穴的墻壁上留下了很重要的關(guān)于他們生活的記錄。他們的藝術(shù)創(chuàng)作保存了大量關(guān)于野生動物、駱駝、山羊、人類及其日常生活的各種場景的繪畫。這些場景可能追溯到公元前5,000年前。這一時期田園畫古跡的廣泛分布表明撒哈拉人曾在廣泛且獨立的牧場上放牧。
大約公元前3,500年前，氣候條件又一次惡化。撒哈拉沙漠漸漸地更加干旱，湖泊相繼干涸。另外西非內(nèi)陸降雨增加，并且舌蠅，一種對駱駝致命的昆蟲，的種群的北部邊界向南移動。所以駱駝牧民也追隨大平原區(qū)域的主要河流系統(tǒng)向南遷徙。此時，隨著撒哈拉人從原本可以種植小麥、大麥和其它一些地中海農(nóng)作物的區(qū)域中遷出，他們可能依靠當(dāng)?shù)氐霓r(nóng)作物，例如像高粱和小米一類的依靠夏季降雨的作物。
