When one animal attacks another, it in the most obvious example of aggressive behavior. Psychologists have adopted several approaches to understanding aggressive behavior in people.
The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear to be involved in aggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain. In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions. The hypothalamus appears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern: electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical aggressive behaviors in many animals. In people, however, whose brains are more complex, other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.
An offshoot of the biological approach called sociobiology suggests that aggression is natural and even desirable for people. Sociobiology views much social behavior, including aggressive behavior, as genetically determined. Consider Darwin's theory of evolution. Darwin held that many more individuals are produced than can find food and survive into adulthood. A struggle for survival follows. Those individuals who possess characteristics that provide them with an advantage in the struggle for existence are more likely to survive and contribute their genes to the next generation. In many species, such characteristics include aggressiveness. Because aggressive individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce, whatever genes are linked to aggressive behavior are more likely to be transmitted to subsequent generations.
The sociobiology view has been attacked on numerous grounds. One is that people's capacity to outwit other species, not their aggressiveness, appears to be the dominant factor in human survival. Another is that there is too much variation among people to believe that they are dominated by, or at the mercy of, aggressive impulses.
The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately. Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. The Freudian perspective, in a sense: sees us as "steam engines." By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for future explosions. Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward strangers later in life.
According to psychodynamic theory, the best ways to prevent harmful aggression may be to encourage less harmful aggression. In the steam-engine analogy, verbal aggression may vent some of the aggressive steam. So might cheering on one's favorite sports team. Psychoanalysts, therapists adopting a psychodynamic approach, refer to the venting of aggressive impulses as "catharsis." Catharsis is theorized to be a safety valve. But research findings on the usefulness of catharsis are mixed. Some studies suggest that catharsis leads to reductions in tension and a lowered likelihood of future aggression. Other studies, however, suggest that letting some steam escape actually encourages more aggression later on.
The Cognitive Approach. Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior is influenced by our values, by the ways in which we interpret our situations and by choice. For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified-as during wartime-are likely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behave aggressively.
One cognitive theory suggests that aggravating and painful events trigger unpleasant feelings. These feelings, in turn, can lead to aggressive action, but not automatically. Cognitive factors intervene. People decide whether they will act aggressively or not on the basis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpretation of other people's motives. Supporting evidence comes from research showing that aggressive people often distort other people's motives. For example, they assume that other people mean them harm when they do not.
Catharsis: In psychodynamic theory, the purging of strong emotions or the relieving of tensions.
Paragraph 5: The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately. Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. The Freudian perspective, in a sense: sees us as "steam engines." By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for future explosions. Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward strangers later in life.
7. Freud describes people as “steam engines” in order to make the point that people
○deliberately build up their aggression to make themselves stronger
○usually release aggression in explosive ways
○must vent their aggression to prevent it from building up
○typically lose their aggression if they do not express it
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答案
7. ○3
This is a Rhetorical Purpose question. If asks you why the author mentions that Freud described people as "steam engines" in the passage. The phrase being tested is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 3, "must vent their aggression to prevent it from building up.'' Steam engines will explode if their steam builds up The same is true of people, as choice 3 indicates. The other choices are not necessarily true of both people and steam engines, so they are incorrect.
動物攻擊異己時，會表現(xiàn)出非常明顯的侵略性行為。心理學(xué)家們采用了數(shù)種方法來分析人類的侵略性行為。
生物學(xué)方法。侵略性行為似乎與許多生物結(jié)構(gòu)和化學(xué)物質(zhì)有關(guān)。如大腦中的下丘腦。很多動物在受到特定刺激時會表現(xiàn)出本能的侵略反應(yīng)。下丘腦似乎與動物的這種本能反應(yīng)有關(guān)：對許多動物的下丘腦中部分區(qū)域進(jìn)行電激，會引發(fā)一些它們的常見侵略性行為。然而，人類的大腦要復(fù)雜的多，大腦的其他結(jié)構(gòu)似乎可以抑制這種本性。
社會生物學(xué)是生物學(xué)方法的一個分支，該理論認(rèn)為侵略性對于人類而言是天生并且必要的。社會生物學(xué)認(rèn)為，包括侵略性行為在內(nèi)的許多社會行為都是由遺傳決定的。根據(jù)達(dá)爾文的進(jìn)化論，他認(rèn)為，個體存在的數(shù)量遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超過那些可以找到食物并且活到成年的個體數(shù)量，個體之間開始進(jìn)行生存競爭，那些擁有競爭優(yōu)勢的個體更容易存活，并且會將它們有利于生存競爭的基因遺傳給下一代。大部分物種所具有的競爭優(yōu)勢特質(zhì)之一就是好斗性。擁有侵略性特質(zhì)的個體更容易存活和繁殖，因此，與侵略性行為相關(guān)的各種基因遺傳給下一代的可能性更大。
該理論在眾多方面遭到質(zhì)疑。其一，人類擁有其他物種不具備的能力，這種并非侵略性質(zhì)的能力才是人類生存下來的主要原因。其二，人類身上存在太多的變數(shù)，因此，我們無法相信人類會被侵略性沖動主導(dǎo)或者支配。
精神動力學(xué)方法。理論家們依據(jù)精神動力學(xué)方法認(rèn)為，內(nèi)在矛盾是理解人類包括侵略性行為在內(nèi)的所有行為的關(guān)鍵所在。比如，弗洛伊德認(rèn)為，日常生活中的挫敗感不可避免地導(dǎo)致人類產(chǎn)生侵略性沖動。孩子們時常想對包括他們父母在內(nèi)的其他人發(fā)泄侵略性沖動的情感，因?yàn)榧词故亲钪苋母改敢矡o法做到立即滿足孩子的所有要求。然而，孩們又會因?yàn)楹ε率艿礁改傅奶幜P，擔(dān)心失去父母的愛而壓制了內(nèi)心大部分的侵略性沖動。從某種意義上說，弗洛伊德的觀點(diǎn)是將人類視為“蒸汽機(jī)”，通過內(nèi)部壓制而不是釋放“蒸汽”，進(jìn)而為今后的爆發(fā)埋下伏筆。積聚起來的侵略性沖動需要被釋放出來。侵略性沖動會間接發(fā)泄到孩子的父母身上，比如毀壞家具，或在以后的生活中對陌生人發(fā)泄。
根據(jù)精神動力學(xué)理論可知，避免有害侵略的最好方法是提倡危害較小的侵略方式。用蒸汽機(jī)打個比方吧，言語性的侵略可以釋放些許帶有侵略性質(zhì)的蒸汽。比如，你可以為自已最喜歡的體育團(tuán)隊吶喊助威。精神分析學(xué)家是利用精神動力學(xué)方法分析的理療師，他們將侵略性沖動的發(fā)泄看成是“精神發(fā)泄”。理論證明精神發(fā)泄是一種安全的方式。但研究發(fā)現(xiàn)精神發(fā)泄的有用性和無用性很混亂。有的研究表明精神發(fā)泄可以緩解緊張情緒并且有助于降低以后侵略性行為產(chǎn)生的可能性。但其他研究又表明讓釋放部分的侵略性沖動蒸汽事實(shí)上會導(dǎo)致今后更多的侵略性行為的產(chǎn)生。
認(rèn)知方法。認(rèn)知心理學(xué)家們認(rèn)為人類的行為受以下因素影響：價值觀、解析自己處境的方式以及不同的選擇。例如，那些認(rèn)為侵略性行為是必要的，并且認(rèn)為戰(zhàn)爭時期侵略行為是正義的人，他們的好斗性可能更高，而認(rèn)為某些戰(zhàn)爭或侵略行為是不公平的，并且認(rèn)為侵略永遠(yuǎn)是不正當(dāng)?shù)娜�，他們遇事時不大可能會采取侵略性行為。
另一認(rèn)知理論認(rèn)為，惱人的、痛苦的事件會引起人們的不悅。隨即，這種不悅將導(dǎo)致但并非自動地導(dǎo)致侵略性行為，人們的認(rèn)知因素會在其中起到干預(yù)作用。一個人是否采取出侵略性行動取決于以下因素，他們進(jìn)行侵略性攻擊的經(jīng)歷，對他人動機(jī)的解讀等。研究表明帶有侵略性的人經(jīng)常曲解他人的意圖。例如，他們認(rèn)為別人想傷害自己，而事實(shí)并非如此。
