Although we now tend to refer to the various crafts according to the materials used to construct them—clay, glass, wood, fiber, and metal—it was once common to think of crafts in terms of function, which led to their being known as the "applied arts." Approaching crafts from the point of view of function, we can divide them into simple categories: containers, shelters and supports. There is no way around the fact that containers, shelters, and supports must be functional. The applied arts are thus bound by the laws of physics, which pertain to both the materials used in their making and the substances and things to be contained, supported, and sheltered. These laws are universal in their application, regardless of cultural beliefs, geography, or climate. If a pot has no bottom or has large openings in its sides, it could hardly be considered a container in any traditional sense. Since the laws of physics, not some arbitrary decision, have determined the general form of applied-art objects, they follow basic patterns, so much so that functional forms can vary only within certain limits. Buildings without roofs, for example, are unusual because they depart from the norm. However, not all functional objects are exactly alike; that is why we recognize a Shang Dynasty vase as being different from an Inca vase. What varies is not the basic form but the incidental details that do not obstruct the object's primary function.
Sensitivity to physical laws is thus an important consideration for the maker of applied-art objects. It is often taken for granted that this is also true for the maker of fine-art objects. This assumption misses a significant difference between the two disciplines. Fine-art objects are not constrained by the laws of physics in the same way that applied-art objects are. Because their primary purpose is not functional, they are only limited in terms of the materials used to make them. Sculptures must, for example, be stable, which requires an understanding of the properties of mass, weight distribution, and stress. Paintings must have rigid stretchers so that the canvas will be taut, and the paint must not deteriorate, crack, or discolor. These are problems that must be overcome by the artist because they tend to intrude upon his or her conception of the work. For example, in the early Italian Renaissance, bronze statues of horses with a raised foreleg usually had a cannonball under that hoof. This was done because the cannonball was needed to support the weight of the leg. In other words, the demands of the laws of physics, not the sculptor's aesthetic intentions, placed the ball there. That this device was a necessary structural compromise is clear from the fact that the cannonball quickly disappeared when sculptors learned how to strengthen the internal structure of a statue with iron braces (iron being much stronger than bronze).
Even though the fine arts in the twentieth century often treat materials in new ways, the basic difference in attitude of artists in relation to their materials in the fine arts and the applied arts remains relatively constant. It would therefore not be too great an exaggeration to say that practitioners of the fine arts work to overcome the limitations of their materials, whereas those engaged in the applied arts work in concert with their materials.
原題
Paragraph 1: Although we now tend to refer to the various crafts according to the materials used to construct them—clay, glass, wood, fiber, and metal—it was once common to think of crafts in terms of function, which led to their being known as the "applied arts." Approaching crafts from the point of view of function, we can divide them into simple categories: containers, shelters and supports. There is no way around the fact that containers, shelters, and supports must be functional. The applied arts are thus bound by the laws of physics, which pertain to both the materials used in their making and the substances and things to be contained, supported, and sheltered. These laws are universal in their application, regardless of cultural beliefs, geography, or climate. If a pot has no bottom or has large openings in its sides, it could hardly be considered a container in any traditional sense. Since the laws of physics, not some arbitrary decision, have determined the general form of applied-art objects, they follow basic patterns, so much so that functional forms can vary only within certain limits. Buildings without roofs, for example, are unusual because they depart from the norm. However, not all functional objects are exactly alike; that is why we recognize a Shang Dynasty vase as being different from an Inca vase. What varies is not the basic form but the incidental details that do not obstruct the object's primary function.
1. The word “they” in the passage refers to
○applied-art objects
○the laws of physics
○containers
○the sides of pots
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答案
1. ○1
This is an example of a simple pronoun-referent item. The highlighted word they refers to the phrase “applied-art objects,” which immediately precedes it, so choice 1 is the correct answer. Often the grammatical referent for a pronoun will be separated from the pronoun. It may be located in a preceding clause or even in the preceding sentence.
實(shí)用藝術(shù)和純藝術(shù)
在現(xiàn)代，人們將根據(jù)工藝品的制造材質(zhì)對他們進(jìn)行分類，如陶土，玻璃，木頭，纖維還有金屬。但最初人們根據(jù)工藝品的功能將他們通通定義為“實(shí)用工藝品”。根據(jù)工藝品的實(shí)用性，我們可以把手工藝品簡單分為：容器，遮蔽物，支撐物。毫無疑問它們都是具有一定功能的物品。這些實(shí)用工藝品以自然規(guī)律為基礎(chǔ)，它們的制作材料及其容納、支撐、遮蓋的內(nèi)容需要符合這些規(guī)律。這些規(guī)律在工藝品應(yīng)用過程中非常普遍，不會因文化信仰、地理?xiàng)l件和氣候的改變而改變。如果一個壺沒有底座，或者在一側(cè)有一個大開口，那么它在任何傳統(tǒng)意義上都很難被視為是一個容器。自然規(guī)律決定了實(shí)用工藝品的一般形式，而不是武斷的結(jié)論決定的，它們遵循基本的樣式，以至于它們的功能不會變化太大。舉個例子，沒有屋頂?shù)慕ㄖ呛苌僖姷�，因�(yàn)樗`反了自然規(guī)律。但是，并不是所有的功能物品都一模一樣，比如我們知道的為什么商代花瓶和印加花瓶不同。它們的區(qū)別不是基本功能的不同，而是那些不影響其基本功能的細(xì)節(jié)存在區(qū)別。
實(shí)用工藝品的生產(chǎn)者會著重考慮這件工藝品對自然規(guī)律的敏感性。所以人們認(rèn)為對純工藝品的生產(chǎn)來說也是一樣。但這種推斷忽略了兩種工藝品之間重要的區(qū)別。純工藝品不像實(shí)用工藝品那樣會受到自然規(guī)律的限制。因?yàn)樗鼈冏钪饕牟⒉皇求w現(xiàn)其功能性，其實(shí)它們僅受限于制作材料的性質(zhì)。比方說雕塑必須要牢固，這就需要了解質(zhì)量，重力分布和壓力的性質(zhì)。油畫必須有堅固的支架，才能讓畫布保持繃緊，并且油畫不可以有毀損，裂紋，褪色。類似困難都是藝術(shù)家們必須克服的，這些困擾往往影響了藝術(shù)家對于工藝品的設(shè)計。就好像在意大利文藝復(fù)興早期，踢出前腿馬匹的青銅像往往有一個金屬球置于它的前蹄下。這樣設(shè)計是因?yàn)樾枰饘偾騺碇瓮鹊闹亓俊Q而言之，擺在那里的金屬球是客觀條件的需要，而不是藝術(shù)家的美學(xué)意愿。當(dāng)?shù)袼芗覍W(xué)會如何了用鐵支架加強(qiáng)雕塑的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)后（鐵比青銅更結(jié)實(shí)），就不再使用金屬球了，由此看來，鐵球的使用是對于必要結(jié)構(gòu)性的妥協(xié)。
盡管在20世紀(jì)純工藝品的制作通常采用新的制造工藝，人們對兩種工藝品的基本態(tài)度仍然保持對立。因此，毫不夸張地說，純藝術(shù)工藝品的生產(chǎn)者需要克服原材料的限制進(jìn)行生產(chǎn)，而從事實(shí)用性工藝品的生產(chǎn)者則依據(jù)材料的性質(zhì)來進(jìn)行生產(chǎn)。
