Before 1815 manufacturing in the United States had been done in homes or shops by skilled artisans. As master craft workers, they the knowledge of their trades to apprentices and journeymen. In addition, women often worked in their homes part-time, making finished articles from raw material supplied by merchant capitalists. After 1815 this older form of manufacturing began to give way to factories with machinery tended by unskilled or semiskilled laborers. Cheap transportation networks, the rise of cities, and the availability of capital and credit all stimulated the shift to factory production.
The creation of a labor force that was accustomed to working in factories did not occur easily. Before the rise of the factory, artisans had worked within the home. Apprentices were considered part of the family, and masters were responsible not only for teaching their apprentices a trade but also for providing them some education and for supervising their moral behavior. Journeymen knew that if they perfected their skill, they could become respected master artisans with their own shops. Also, skilled artisans did not work by the clock, at a steady pace, but rather in bursts of intense labor alternating with more leisurely time.
The factory changed that. Goods produced by factories were not as finished or elegant as those done by hand, and pride in craftsmanship gave way to the pressure to increase rates of productivity. The new methods of doing business involved a new and stricter sense of time. Factory life necessitated a more regimented schedule, where work began at the sound of a bell and workers kept machines going at a constant pace. At the same time, workers were required to discard old habits, for industrialism demanded a worker who was alert, dependable, and self-disciplined. Absenteeism and lateness hurt productivity and, since work was specialized, disrupted the regular factory routine. Industrialization not only produced a fundamental change in the way work was organized; it transformed the very nature of work.
The first generation to experience these changes did not adopt the new attitudes easily. The factory clock became the symbol of the new work rules. One mill worker who finally quit complained revealingly about "obedience to the ding-dong of the bell-just as though we are so many living machines." With the loss of personal freedom also came the loss of standing in the community. Unlike artisan workshops in which apprentices worked closely with the masters supervising them, factories sharply separated workers from management. Few workers rose through the ranks to supervisory positions, and even fewer could achieve the artisan's dream of setting up one's own business. Even well-paid workers sensed their decline in status.
In this newly emerging economic order, workers sometimes organized to protect their rights and traditional ways of life. Craft workers such as carpenters, printers, and tailors formed unions, and in 1834 individual unions came together in the National Trades' Union. The labor movement gathered some momentum in the decade before the Panic of 1837, but in the depression that followed, labor's strength collapsed. During hard times, few workers were willing to strike* or engage in collective action. And skilled craft workers, who spearheaded the union movement, did not feel a particularly strong bond with semiskilled factory workers and unskilled laborers. More than a decade of agitation did finally bring a workday shortened to 10 hours to most industries by the 1850’s, and the courts also recognized workers' right to strike, but these gains had little immediate impact.
Workers were united in resenting the industrial system and their loss of status, but they were divided by ethnic and racial antagonisms, gender, conflicting religious perspectives, occupational differences, political party loyalties, and disagreements over tactics. For them, the factory and industrialism were not agents of opportunity but reminders of their loss of independence and a measure of control over their lives. As United States society became more specialized and differentiated, greater extremes of wealth began to appear. And as the new markets created fortunes for the few, the factory system lowered the wages of workers by dividing labor into smaller, less skilled tasks.
Paragraph 1: Before 1815 manufacturing in the United States had been done in homes or shops by skilled artisans. As master craft workers, they imparted the knowledge of their trades to apprentices and journeymen. In addition, women often worked in their homes part-time, making finished articles from raw material supplied by merchant capitalists. After 1815 this older form of manufacturing began to give way to factories with machinery tended by unskilled or semiskilled laborers. Cheap transportation networks, the rise of cities, and the availability of capital and credit all stimulated the shift to factory production.
1. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage about articles manufactured before 1815?
○They were primarily produced by women.
○They were generally produced in shops rather than in homes.
○They were produced with more concern for quality than for speed of production.
○They were produced mostly in large cities with extensive transportation networks.
Paragraph 2: The creation of a labor force that was accustomed to working in factories did not occur easily. Before the rise of the factory, artisans had worked within the home. Apprentices were considered part of the family, and masters were responsible not only for teaching their apprentices a trade but also for providing them some education and for supervising their moral behavior. Journeymen knew that if they perfected their skill, they could become respected master artisans with their own shops. Also, skilled artisans did not work by the clock, at a steady pace, but rather in bursts of intense labor alternating with more leisurely time.
2. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information
○Masters demanded moral behavior from apprentices but often treated them irresponsibly.
○The responsibilities of the master to the apprentice went beyond the teaching of a trade.
○Masters preferred to maintain the trade within the family by supervising and educating the younger family members.
○Masters who trained members of their own family as apprentices demanded excellence from them.
Paragraph 3: The factory changed that. Goods produced by factories were not as finished or elegant as those done by hand, and pride in craftsmanship gave way to the pressure to increase rates of productivity. The new methods of doing business involved a new and stricter sense of time. Factory life necessitated a more regimented schedule, where work began at the sound of a bell and workers kept machines going at a constant pace. At the same time, workers were required to discard old habits, for industrialism demanded a worker who was alert, dependable, and self-disciplined. Absenteeism and lateness hurt productivity and, since work was specialized, disrupted the regular factory routine. Industrialization not only produced a fundamental change in the way work was organized; it transformed the very nature of work.
3. The word “disrupted” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○prolonged
○established
○followed
○upset
Paragraph 4: The first generation to experience these changes did not adopt the new attitudes easily. The factory clock became the symbol of the new work rules. One mill worker who finally quit complained revealingly about "obedience to the ding-dong of the bell-just as though we are so many living machines." With the loss of personal freedom also came the loss of standing in the community. Unlike artisan workshops in which apprentices worked closely with the masters supervising them, factories sharply separated workers from management. Few workers rose through the ranks to supervisory positions, and even fewer could achieve the artisan's dream of setting up one's own business. Even well-paid workers sensed their decline in status.
4. In paragraph 4, the author includes the quotation from a mill worker in order to
○support the idea that it was difficult for workers to adjust to working in factories
○to show that workers sometimes quit because of the loud noise made by factory machinery
○argue that clocks did not have a useful function in factories
○emphasize that factories were most successful when workers revealed their complaints
5. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 4 as consequences of the new system for workers EXCEPT a loss of
○freedom
○status in the community
○opportunities for advancement
○contact among workers who were not managers
Paragraph 5: In this newly emerging economic order, workers sometimes organized to protect their rights and traditional ways of life. Craft workers such as carpenters, printers, and tailors formed unions, and in 1834 individual unions came together in the National Trades' Union. The labor movement gathered some momentum in the decade before the Panic of 1837, but in the depression that followed, labor's strength collapsed. During hard times, few workers were willing to strike* or engage in collective action. And skilled craft workers, who spearheaded the union movement, did not feel a particularly strong bond with semiskilled factory workers and unskilled laborers. More than a decade of agitation did finally bring a workday shortened to 10 hours to most industries by the 1850’s, and the courts also recognized workers' right to strike, but these gains had little immediate impact.
6. The phrase “gathered some momentum” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○made progress
○became active
○caused changes
○combined forces
7. The word “spearheaded” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○led
○accepted
○changed
○resisted
8. Which of the following statements about the labor movement of the 1800's is supported by paragraph 5?
○It was most successful during times of economic crisis.
○Its primary purpose was to benefit unskilled laborers.
○It was slow to improve conditions for workers.
○It helped workers of all skill levels form a strong bond with each other.
Paragraph 6: Workers were united in resenting the industrial system and their loss of status, but they were divided by ethnic and racial antagonisms, gender, conflicting religious perspectives, occupational differences, political party loyalties, and disagreements over tactics. For them, the factory and industrialism were not agents of opportunity but reminders of their loss of independence and a measure of control over their lives. As United States society became more specialized and differentiated, greater extremes of wealth began to appear. And as the new markets created fortunes for the few, the factory system lowered the wages of workers by dividing labor into smaller, less skilled tasks.
9. The author identifies political party loyalties, and disagreements over tactics as two of several factors that
○encouraged workers to demand higher wages
○created divisions among workers
○caused work to become more specialized
○increased workers' resentment of the industrial system
10. The word “them” in the passage refers to
○workers
○political patty loyalties
○disagreements over tactics
○agents of opportunity
Paragraph 1: Before 1815 manufacturing in the United States had been done in homes or shops by skilled artisans. ■As master craft workers, they imparted the knowledge of their trades to apprentices and journeymen. ■In addition, women often worked in their homes part-time, making finished articles from raw material supplied by merchant capitalists. ■After 1815 this older form of manufacturing began to give way to factories with machinery tended by unskilled or semiskilled laborers. ■Cheap transportation networks, the rise of cities, and the availability of capital and credit all stimulated the shift to factory production.
11. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage.
This new form of manufacturing depended on the movement of goods to distant locations and a centralized source of laborers.
Where would the sentence best fit?
12. Directions: Complete the table below by indicating which of the answer choices describe characteristics of the period before 1815 and which describe characteristics of the 1815-1850 period. This question is worth 3 points.
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Before 1815
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1815-1850
|
|
●
●
|
●
●
●
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Answer choices
○A united, highly successful labor movement took shape.
○Workers took pride in their workmanship.
○The income gap between the rich and the poor increased greatly.
○Transportation networks began to decline.
○Emphasis was placed on following schedules.
○Workers went through an extensive period of training.
○Few workers expected to own their own businesses.
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參考答案：
1. ○3
This is an Inference question asking for an inference that can be supported by the passage. The correct answer is choice 3, "They were produced with more concern for quality than for speed of production." A number of statements throughout the passage support choice 3. Paragraph 1 states that "Before 1815 manufacturing in the United States had been done in homes or shops by skilled artisans . . . After 18 15 this older form of manufacturing began to give way to factories with machinery tended by unskilled or semiskilled laborers." Paragraph 2 states that "Before the rise of the factory . . . skilled artisans did not work by the clock, at a steady pace, but rather in bursts of intense labor alternating with more leisurely time." Paragraph 3 states, "The factory changed that. Goods produced by factories were not as finished or elegant as those done by hand, and pride in craftsmanship gave way to the pressure to increase rates of productivity."
Taken together, these three statements, about production rates, the rise of factories after 18 15, and the decline of craftsmanship after 18 15, support the inference that before 18 15, the emphasis had been on quality rather than on speed of production. Answer choices 1, 2, and 4 are all contradicted by the passage.
2. ○2
This is a Sentence Simplification question. As with all of these items, a single sentence in the passage is highlighted:
Apprentices were considered part of the family, and masters were responsible not only for teaching their apprentices a trade but also for providing them some education and for supervising their moral behavior.
The correct answer is choice 2. Choice 2 contains all of the essential information in the highlighted sentence. The highlighted sentence explains why (part of the family) and how (education, moral behavior) a master's responsibility went beyond teaching a trade. The essential information is the fact that the master's responsibility went beyond teaching a trade. Therefore, choice 2 contains all that is essential without changing the meaning of the highlighted sentence.
Choice 1 changes the meaning of the highlighted sentence b~ stating that masters often treated apprentices irresponsibly.
Choice 3 contradicts the essential meaning of the highlighted sentence. The fact that "Apprentices were considered part of the family . . . " suggests that they were not actual family members.
Choice 4, like choice 3, changes the meaning of the highlighted sentence by discussing family members as apprentices.
3. ○4
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is disrupted. It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 4, "upset." The word "upset" here is used in the context of "hurting productivity." When something is hurt or damaged, it is "upset."
4. ○1
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 4. The correct answer is choice I, "support the idea that it was difficult for workers to adjust to working in factories." The paragraph begins by stating that workers did not adopt new attitudes toward work easily and that the clock symbolized the new work rules. The author provides the quotation as evidence of that difficulty. There is no indication in the paragraph that workers quit due to loud noise, so choice 2 is incorrect. Choice 3 (usefulness of clocks) is contradicted by the paragraph. The factory clock was "useful," but workers hated it. Choice 4 (workers complaints as a cause of a factory's success) is not discussed in this paragraph.
5. ○4
This is a Negative Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 4. Choice 4, "contact among workers who were not managers," is the correct answer. The paragraph explicitly contradicts this by stating that "factories sharply separated workers from management." The paragraph explicitly states that workers lost choice I (freedom), choice 2 (status in the community), and choice 3 (opportunities for advancement) in the new system, so those choices are all incorrect.
6. ○1
This is a Vocabulary question. The phrase being tested is "gathered some momentum." It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice I, "made progress." To "gather momentum" means to advance with increasing speed.
7. ○1
This is a Vocabulary question. The word being tested is spearheaded. It is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 1, "led." The head of a spear leads the rest of the spear, so the crafts workers who "spearheaded" this movement led it.
8. ○3
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information that can be found in paragraph 5. The correct answer is choice 3, "It was slow to improve conditions for workers." The paragraph states, "More than a decade of agitation did finally bring a workday shortened to 10 hours to most industries by the 1850's, and the courts also recognized workers' right to strike, but these gains had little immediate impact." This statement explicitly supports choice 3. All three other choices are contradicted by the paragraph.
9. ○2
This is a Factual Information question asking for specific information about a particular phrase in the passage. The phrase in question is highlighted in the passage. The correct answer is choice 2, "created divisions among workers." The paragraph states (emphasis added): " . . . they (workers) were divided by ethnic and racial antagonisms, gender; conflicting religious perspectives, occupational differences, political part loyalties, and disagreements over tactics." So "political party loyalties and disagreements over tactics'' are explicitly stared as two causes of division among workers. The other choices are not stated and are incorrect.
10. ○1
This is a Reference question. The word being tested is them. It is highlighted in the passage. This is a simple pronoun-referent item. The word them in this sentence refers to those people to whom "the factory and industrialism were not agents of opportunity but reminders of their loss of independence and a measure of control over their lives." Choice 1, "Workers," is the only choice that refers to this type of person, so it is the correct answer.
11. ○4
This is an Insert Text question. You can see the four black squares in paragraph 1 that represent the possible answer choices here.
Before 1815 manufacturing in the United States had been done in homes or shops by skilled artisans. ■ As master craft workers, they imparted the knowledge of their trades to apprentices and journeymen. ■ In addition, women often worked in their homes part-time, making finished articles from raw material supplied by merchant capitalists. W After 1815 this older form of manufacturing began to give way to factories with machinery tended by unskilled or semiskilled laborers. ■ Cheap transportation networks, the rise of cities, and the availability of capital and credit all stimulated the shift to factory production.
The sentence provided, "This new form of manufacturing depended on the movement of goods to distant locations and a centralized source of laborers," is best inserted at square 4. The inserted sentence refers explicitly to "a new form of manufacturing." This "new form of manufacturing" is the one mentioned in the sentence preceding square 4, "factories with machinery tended by unskilled or semiskilled laborers." The inserted sentence then explains that this new system depended on "the movement of goods to distant locations and a centralized source of laborers." The sentence that follows square 4 goes on to say, "Cheap transportation networks, the rise of cities, and the availability of capital and credit all stimulated the shift to factory production." Thus the inserted sentence contains references to both the sentence before square 4 and the sentence after square 4. This is not true of any of the other possible insert points, so square 4 is the correct answer.
12.○B(yǎng)efore 1815: 2, 6
○1815-1850: 3, 5, 7
This is a Fill in a Table question. It is completed correctly below. The correct choices for the "Before 18 15" column are 2 and 6. Choices 3, 5, and 7 belong in the "1815-1 850" column. Choices 1 and 4 should not be used in either column.
1815年以前，美國的制造業(yè)僅限于技術(shù)高超的工匠在自己家中和作坊中進(jìn)行生產(chǎn)。作為師傅，工匠們將自己的手藝傳授給徒弟和雇工。此外，婦女們在家中通常也會兼職從事一些生產(chǎn)活動，將商業(yè)資本家提供的原料制成成品。1815年以后，這種古老的生產(chǎn)模式逐漸消失，雇傭沒有技術(shù)或半技術(shù)勞動者的機(jī)械化工廠開始興起。廉價(jià)的交通運(yùn)輸網(wǎng)絡(luò)、城市的興起和資本借貸的可行性都促進(jìn)了制造業(yè)從手工作坊到工廠生產(chǎn)的轉(zhuǎn)變。
想要獲得適應(yīng)在工廠工作中勞動力并不容易。在工廠興起之前，工匠們只是呆家里進(jìn)行生產(chǎn)，學(xué)徒們被視為家庭的一份子，師傅不光負(fù)責(zé)傳授他們手藝，還要教育并監(jiān)督他們的道德行為。雇工也明白如果他們的技藝足夠精湛，就會成為受人尊敬的工匠師傅并擁有自己的作坊。同時，老練的工匠師傅們并不會按照時間計(jì)劃安排生產(chǎn)，他們更習(xí)慣于時而閑暇，時而為了交單連夜趕工的生產(chǎn)方式。
工廠化生產(chǎn)改變了這一切。工廠生產(chǎn)的商品沒有手工制作的那么完美和精致，工廠要求工人們提高生產(chǎn)效率，導(dǎo)致工人們對自身技藝的自豪感逐漸弱化。工廠化生產(chǎn)方式要求工人們加強(qiáng)之前沒有的時間觀念，要求他們嚴(yán)格遵守工作時間的安排，鈴聲響起，工人們開始操控機(jī)器穩(wěn)速運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)。工人們在適應(yīng)新的生產(chǎn)方式的同時，還要摒棄舊習(xí)慣。產(chǎn)業(yè)主義要求工人們具備機(jī)敏、可靠和自律的素質(zhì)。既然工廠生產(chǎn)已經(jīng)專業(yè)化，曠工與遲到就會降低勞動生產(chǎn)率，也會影響工廠的正常運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)。工業(yè)化進(jìn)程不僅促成了一種工作組織形式的根本改變，而且改變了工作的本質(zhì)。
適應(yīng)新的生產(chǎn)方式對第一代經(jīng)歷產(chǎn)業(yè)革命的工人來說是一件非常困難的事情。工廠的時鐘變成了新工作規(guī)定的象征。一名最終辭職的磨坊工人袒露真情地抱怨道：“讓我們聽從于叮叮當(dāng)當(dāng)?shù)溺姳�，簡直就把我們�?dāng)成了活生生的機(jī)器。”工人們不僅喪失了人身自由，他們的社會地位也開始下降。和手工作坊里徒弟與監(jiān)督他們的師傅之間的密切工作關(guān)系不同，工廠將工人階層與管理層明顯地區(qū)分開。很少有工人能夠僭越等級被提升到管理層的崗位，甚至基本沒有人能夠?qū)崿F(xiàn)身為工匠時的夢想：經(jīng)營自己的生意。那些待遇優(yōu)厚的工人也開始感到他們的社會地位在下降。
在這種新的經(jīng)濟(jì)秩序中，有時工人們會組織起來共同去保護(hù)他們的權(quán)利和傳統(tǒng)的生活方式。比如木匠、印刷工人和裁縫等技術(shù)工人成立了聯(lián)盟，并且，在1834年，各個獨(dú)立的聯(lián)盟組織成立了國家職工聯(lián)盟。在1837年大恐慌前之的十年中，工人運(yùn)動取得了進(jìn)步，不過隨后而來的經(jīng)濟(jì)大蕭條最終導(dǎo)致了工人力量的瓦解。那段時間，很少有人愿意罷工或者參與工人運(yùn)動。身為工人運(yùn)動先鋒隊(duì)的技術(shù)工匠們，并沒有感到他們與半技術(shù)工人和非技術(shù)勞動者之間有顯著密切的聯(lián)系。直到19世紀(jì)50年代，超過十年的抗?fàn)幾罱K使得大多數(shù)行業(yè)的工作時間縮短至10小時，法院也承認(rèn)了工人罷工的權(quán)利，但這些權(quán)利的影響并沒有立即顯現(xiàn)。
因?yàn)閷I(yè)體系和他們社會地位喪失的不滿，工人們開始聯(lián)合起來，但他們內(nèi)部又被另外的因素分裂：民族和種族的敵對、性別差異、宗教信仰的沖突、職位差別、對不同政黨的忠誠和工作策略的分歧等。對于工人們來說，工廠和工業(yè)化不代表著機(jī)遇，卻時刻提醒著他們自身的喪失，并成為一種控制他們生活的手段。隨著美國社會生產(chǎn)變得更加專業(yè)化和差異化，更大規(guī)模的極端財(cái)富開始出現(xiàn)。并且由于新興市場只給少數(shù)人創(chuàng)造財(cái)富，工業(yè)體系不得不通過將勞動分割成更小的、技術(shù)含量更低的工作來降低工人們的工資。
