2014年9月14日托福閱讀考試真題及解析

2014年9月14日托�？荚囈呀�(jīng)結(jié)束，小編整理了托福閱讀考試真題及解析，供備考托福的同學參考使用，更多托�？荚嚈C經(jīng)，撥打免費咨詢熱線400-618-0272了解。

三篇文章題材分別為人類研究、地質(zhì)地理研究和動物研究，TPO 中也有不少相似篇章。

三篇詞匯題：

ingenuity=cleverness merely=simply acquire random investigate inspect=exam potential replicate =copy explicit underlie distinct

第一篇：Children’s play

題材劃分：人類研究

主要內(nèi)容：講pretend play 對孩子的作用，分階段講。早期的孩子最開始玩什么玩具，后來就能pretend，他們自己pretend 他們在吃飯等的一些簡單的familiar 的事(有題，選關(guān)于familiar 的)，后來就更復雜了，后來小孩可以理解大人pretend 的一些事，并參與進來。后來他們就可以扮演了一些社會角色，比如說爸爸、媽媽、護士之類的，類似過家家，他們還知道該停止的時候就得停止(有題，排除題，選他們不知道停止)。說這些不僅對social development 和intelligence 有好處，還能讓孩子認識cognitive the authority and rules.

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TPO6

Infantile Amnesia

TPO30

Role of Play in Development

相關(guān)知識背景

Imitation and verbal behavior of children 

Behaviorists have studied verbal behavior since the 1920s. E.A. Esper (1920) studied associative models of language, which has evolved into the current language interventions of matrix training and recombinative generalization. Skinner (1957) created a comprehensive taxonomy of language for speakers. Baer, along with Zettle and Haynes (1989), provided a developmental analysis of rule-governed behavior for the listener and for the listener Zettle and Hayes (1989) with Don Baer providing a developmental analysis of rule-governed behavior. According to Skinner, language learning depends on environmental variables, which can be mastered by a child through imitation, practice, and selective reinforcement including automatic reinforcement.

B.F. Skinner was one of the first psychologists to take the role of imitation in verbal behavior as a serious mechanism for acquisition. He identified echoic behavior as one of his basic verbal operant, postulating that verbal behavior was learned by an infant from a verbal community. Skinner's account takes verbal behavior beyond an intra-individual process to an inter-individual process. He defined verbal behavior as "behavior reinforced through the mediation of others”.Noam refuted Skinner’s assumptions.

In the behavioral model, the child is prepared to contact the contingencies to "join" the listener and speaker. At the very core, verbal episodes involve the rotation of the roles as speaker and listener. These kinds of exchanges are called conversational units and have been the focus of research at Columbia's communication disorders department.

Conversational units is a measure of socialization because they consist of verbal interactions in which the exchange is reinforced by both the speaker and the listener. H.C. Chu (1998) demonstrated contextual conditions for inducing and expanding conversational units between children with autism and non-handicapped siblings in two separate experiments. The acquisition of conversational units and the expansion of verbal behavior decrease incidences of physical "aggression" in the Chu study and several other reviews suggest similar effects. The joining of the listener and speaker progresses from listener speaker rotations with others as a likely precedent for the three major components of speaker-as-own listener—say so correspondence, self-talk conversational units, and naming.

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第二篇

題材劃分：地質(zhì)地理

主要內(nèi)容：

地球內(nèi)部的構(gòu)造(有一張圖講各個底層)。說人類只能接觸比較表層的構(gòu)造，然后講了幾種方法可以研究(有問題，問的哪個方法沒提到)，比如分析火山的坑、還有什么巖石樣本。后來講了有一個特別深的洞(也是一個排除題)，是世界上最深的洞，但是這個洞相比較而言還是很淺，還是到達不了地球的內(nèi)部，所以不能研究地球內(nèi)部。用實驗模擬地球內(nèi)部的環(huán)境，看看哪些物質(zhì)能在高溫、高壓下面比較穩(wěn)定，但是這種方法不能確定地球內(nèi)部物質(zhì)組成的比例。如果地球一直散熱的話，地球早就冷了(有題，問為什么沒有冷掉)，但是沒有冷是因為很多物質(zhì)可以有熱輻射，加上地球內(nèi)部比外部的溫度高很多，內(nèi)部的巖石在高溫高壓的

情況下可以運動，這就造成了convection(有題，說關(guān)于這個convection 哪個是錯的)，然后舉了個例子來理解，說就像在玻璃里面，還說這造成了板塊運動，板塊運動非常慢，一年只有幾厘米，但是在地質(zhì)學的時間來看，這種運動非常的快。

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TPO7 The Geologic History of the Mediterranean

TPO28 Groundwater

相關(guān)知識背景

Mantle convection is the slow creeping motion of Earth's rocky mantle caused by convection currents carrying heat from the interior of the earth to the surface. It is the driving force that causes tectonic plates to move around the Earth's surface.

The Earth's surface is divided into a number of tectonic plates that are continuously being created and consumed at their opposite plate boundaries. Creation (accretion) occurs as mantle is added to the growing edges of a plate. This hot added material cools down by conduction and convection of heat. At the consumption edges of the plate, the material has thermally contracted to become dense, and it sinks under its

own weight in the process of subduction at an ocean trench. This subducted material sinks to some depth in the Earth's interior where it is prohibited from sinking further.The subducted oceanic crust triggers volcanism.

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第三篇：

題材劃分：動物學

(與2013 年12 月15 日閱讀的第二篇一樣)

主要內(nèi)容：

因為猩猩沒法發(fā)音，很多人就開始對教猩猩的手語比較感興趣了(有題，問為什么開始對教猩猩感興趣);第二段講了一個實驗，說讓猩猩待在一群人中間，這群人不說話，都是用手語表達，還做了一些特別的幫助，來教猩猩手語(排除題，問哪個方法沒用到)。猩猩學了很多詞，還能同時說2 個詞了，2 個詞是有結(jié)構(gòu)的而不是ramdom(詞匯題)，最后猩猩還會創(chuàng)新，說了一個waterbird(有題，問waterbird 說明了什么)。第三段講第二段的這個實驗發(fā)表在科學雜志上面了，刺激了很多人研究猩猩的手語，結(jié)果這些熱情因為一個實驗給停止了(有題，問對這種研究的熱情怎么停止了)。講這個實驗表面,猩猩學了很多詞，也能用2 個詞來表達。但是小孩的詞匯量達到一定程度就可以說一些句子，但是猩猩的詞匯量到了125，還是不能表達復雜的句子,而且猩猩只能說2 個詞，如果說3、4 個詞，他就只能重復，比如說Nim(一個名字)eat，you eat，它這么說只是為了強調(diào)，而不是為了表達。第四段講得一個film，一個trainer 教猩猩，猩猩更多的是重復trainer 的話。最后一段比較了一下孩子和猩猩，說孩子可以說很多變化的句子。

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相關(guān)知識背景

Chimpanzees make tools and use them to acquire foods and for social displays; they have sophisticated hunting strategies requiring cooperation, influence and rank; they are status conscious, manipulative and capable of deception; they can learn to use symbols and understand aspects of human language including some relational syntax, concepts of number and numerical sequence; and they are capable of spontaneous planning for a future state or event.

Chimps communicate in a manner similar to human nonverbal communication, using vocalizations, hand gestures, and facial expressions. Research into the chimpanzee brain has revealed chimp communication activates an area of the chimp brain in the same position as Broca's area, a language center in the human brain.

There is some debate as to whether chimpanzees have the ability to express hierarchical ideas in language. Studies have found that chimps are capable of learning a limited set of sign language symbols, which they can use to communicate with human trainers. However, it is clear that there are distinct limits to the complexity of knowledge structures with which chimps are capable of dealing. The sentences that they can express are limited to specific simple noun-verb sequences and are not capable of the indefinite expansion of complexity characteristic of humans.

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